The Drama Of Scripture Written By Bartholomew And Goheen...

The Drama of Scripture written by Bartholomew and Goheen takes the reader on a journey through the entire Bible in six short â€Å"acts.† The first Act discusses creation and the establishment of God’s Kingdom. In the beginning was complete darkness. Then, God created light and divided the heavens and the earth. He then split the waters and the seas, creating dry ground on which the rest of creation could walk. He proceeded to make plants and flowers and the sun, moon, and stars. He created days and seasons and animals of all shapes and sizes. And then, to add the finishing touch, God created men and women, male and female, He created them. The book states that â€Å"the Genesis story is given so that we might have a true understanding of the world in which we live, its divine author, and our own place in it† (Bartholomew, 29). Genesis 1-3, the story of Creation, is prevalent because it introduces the author of creation, humanity, and the creation upon which huma nity’s drama unfolds. God does not hold Himself distant from His creation, but He embraces it; He walks with it. He engages with that which He created. The story of Creation shows that the author of it all is personal, intimate, and cares about what He created. Act one gives us a glimpse of how the world was supposed to be; a beautiful, intimate, God –in –the –midst life of perfect satisfaction with the absence of sin. However, this all crumbled in Act two when Adam and Eve decided to disobey God and take their lives intoShow MoreRelatedA Research Study On Liberty University School Of Divinity Essay1646 Words   |  7 Pagescontext in order to achieve at the biblical message of this ancient book. __________________ 1. Unless otherwise noted all biblical references are in NIV Bible (London: Hodder Stoughton, 2000 1. CONTEXT The book of Colossians was written between A.D. 58-62; the location of the church was located in the Lycus river valley of west central Asia Minor. Historically this setting was not very significant; however, â€Å"it became to be known for its prominence with textiles and the centrality

Emotional And Emotional Effects Of Domestic Violence

Domestic violence, or as Daigle calls it, intimate partner violence, comes in different forms. One of these forms is intimate terrorism, which involves severe, persistent and frequent abuse that tends to get worse as time goes on. The abusive partner needs to feel like he or she has the power and control of the relationship. This type of intimate partner violence is likely to result in serious injury, the worst of which is death. Another kind of intimate partner violence is situational couple violence, also known as common couple violence. The couple will get into an argument, it will blow up and get out of control, and it will end with violence. These arguments do not usually start out violent; instead, these arguments are over every day things that a lot of couples argue about, like money. Although this form does not typically result in anyone getting seriously injured, it is likely to result in psychological and emotional damage over time. The third form is called violent resistan ce. In this form, the person may be violent, but he or she is not controlling of their partner. Their partner on the other hand, may be both violent and controlling. This is not a good mix. The last form is mutual violent control. In this form, both partners are both violent and controlling. Two people together like that can be deadly. So what do we consider an intimate partner? An intimate partner is a husband or wife, a girlfriend or boyfriend, an ex-husband or ex-wife, or even just someoneShow MoreRelatedPsychological And Emotional Effects Of Domestic Violence986 Words   |  4 Pagescases, they are killed by a family member or intimate partner. Domestic violence is typically the aggressive or violent behavior in a household that involves the physical abuse of a spouse or partner. Physical abuse is one of the major ways men control the behavior of women. More than 4 million women experience physical assault and rape by their partners. The abuser may also do other acts of violenc e such as psychological and/or emotional abuse that includes intimidation, threats, isolations and etcRead MoreDomestic Violence : Violence Between Adult Intimate Partners1632 Words   |  7 PagesDomestic Violence Introduction Domestic Violence isn t just hitting, or fighting, or an occasional mean argument. It s a chronic abuse of power. The abuser tortures and controls the victim by calculated threats, intimidation, and physical violence. Actual physical violence is often the end result of months or years of intimidation and control. Defining the problem: Domestic violence is violence between adult intimate partners. Though the definition above seems simple enough (it is widely acceptedRead MoreDomestic Violence Is A Crisis1171 Words   |  5 Pageswith our eyes closed towards the crisis of domestic violence. A study done showed that every nine seconds a women is beaten or assaulted (â€Å"Statistics†). The time that it has taken you to read to this point is the time it has taken for a women to be hit by this crisis. Yet, so many think that the concern for domestic violence is over-exaggerated. Many think that there are so many other epidemics going on that should take precedence over domestic violence. Besides worrying about these epidemics, itRead MoreAll around the world domestic violence is a threat to all different types of families, including1000 Words   |  4 Pagesworld domestic violence is a threat to all different types of families, including children and adults. â€Å"It is estimated that approximately 3 million incidents of domestic violence are reported each year in the Un ited States† (Feinstein). The most common victims of domestic violence are women, and children. Organizations that offers protection for victims includes: National Network to End Domestic Violence, Survivor Network, and National Council on Child Abuse and Family Violence. Domestic violenceRead MoreEmotional And Emotional Domestic Violence993 Words   |  4 PagesEmotional Domestic Violence Eric Easter American Military University â€Æ' Emotional Domestic Violence Abstract Emotional abuse includes non-physical behaviors like threats, insults, constant observance or checking in,† excessive texting, humiliation, intimidation, isolation or stalking. Several program define emotional domestic violence from verbal to physical abuse. The discovery we tend to created is that the key to a successful outcome with abusive relationships is recognizing the psychopathologyRead MoreDomestic Abuse And Substance Abuse1546 Words   |  7 PagesDomestic abuse and substance in a family can traumatize any children going through this outbreak. Spouses, parents, stepparents, children, siblings, elderly relatives, and intimate partners may all be targets of domestic/substance abuse. Domestic violence is the most risk factor impacting a child’s social, emotional, and physical wellbeing. Violence, aggression, and substance abuse between members of the family have been continued patterns of family life. I want to see the outcome of how childrenRead MoreDomestic Ab use Essay1497 Words   |  6 PagesChild and domestic abuse is a serious matter which needs to have additional focus, especially in this day and age. Abuse is most often causes harm to others. Abuse may either be verbal, emotional, or physical or times all three. In today’s society there are many different types of abuse including, physical, sexual, emotional, psychological, and neglect. All these types of abuse can affect people in multiple different ways, creating anywhere from short term to long term notable effects in the personRead MoreLong-Term Consequences of Childhood Exposure to Domestic Violence948 Words   |  4 PagesConsequences of Childhood Exposure to Domestic Violence Abstract: Domestic violence effects everybody in a family. Patterns of abuse from one parent to another, between both parents or directed toward a child all have a composite effect of inflicting potentially severe emotional damage upon the child. The research outlined here identifies domestic violence as a serious sociological problem and consequently provides a usable definition of domestic violence for the present study. This is followedRead MoreThe Effects Of Domestic Violence On Children1387 Words   |  6 Pages Literature Review: The Effects of Domestic Violence on Children By Taralyn Dean SW 8570 March 11, 2015 Introduction Today this paper will be exploring the affects of intimate partner domestic violence and how this impacts the children. The children of theses situations are the bystanders of these physical and emotional events. This paper will review in depth what other professionals are saying about the children of the domestic violence relationships and also the findings andRead MoreThe Effects Of Intimate Partner Violence On Children Essay811 Words   |  4 Pages The effects of intimate partner violence are attenuating and extend far beyond physical scarring. The abuse of woman and children has been researched extensively by Rachel Pain (2014, p. 536) as acts of â€Å"terrorism within the home†. If we are to compare the experience of women and children living in violent homes and the act of ‘terrorism’ itself we get a corresponding experience (Pain, 2014, p. 546). The construction of fear, the loss of identity, the ongoing distress of constantly feeling unsafe

Emile Durkheim Anomie or Strain Theory Essay Example For Students

Emile Durkheim Anomie or Strain Theory Essay DURKHEIM AND ANOMIE OR STRAIN THEORYby Brent M. Pergram, Masers of Arts in Sociology Emile Durkheim is the founder of the study of anomie theory or strain theory that believes that anomie or strain causes a person to commit suicide or some other deviant act. This research paper will discuss several articles that deal with strain theory and with Durkheims theory of anomie. I will also discuss articles on Mertons strain theory, and on Agnews General Strain Theory that expands the concept of strain. Durkheim is the founder of anomie theory, but Merton, and later Agnew made changes to the theory to try to make it a general theory that could explain most types of deviance. Anomie is a concept that is associated with two theorists, Emile Durkheim and RobertMerton.Durkheim introduced the term in his 1893 book The Division of Labor in Society, when he described it as a condition of deregulation occurring in society. This occurs when the general rules of a society have broken down and that pe ople no longer know what to expect from one another. It is this state of normlessness or deregulation in society that leads to deviant behavior. Durkheim used the term anomie again in his classic 1897 book Suicide, referring to a morally deregulated condition were people have inadequate moral control over their actions. Therefore, a given society may be anomic if people do not know when to stop striving for success, or how to treat others along the way. Regardless of which of these two descriptions of anomie one uses, a brake down in either the rules of society or the moral norms, Durkheim clearly meant to describe a disruption or normal societal conditions.Durkheim was preoccupied with the effects of social change. Durkheim best illustrated his concept of anomie not in a discussion of crime but of suicide. In the Division of Labor in Society, Durkheim proposed two concepts. First, that societies evolved from a simple, non-specialized form, called mechanical, toward a highly complex, specialized form, called organic. In a simple mechanical society people behave and think alike, and basically perform the same work tasks and have the same group-oriented goals. When societies become more complex, or organic, work also becomes more complex. In an organic society, people are no longer tied to one another and social bonds are impersonal. Thus anomie refers to a breakdown of social norms and is a condition where norms no longer control the activities of members in society. The individuals in society cannot find their place in it, without clear rules to help guide them. Changing conditions in society as well as adjustment of life leads to dissatisfaction, conflict, and deviance. Durkheim observed that social periods of disruption, such as economic depression lead to increased levels of anomie and higher rates of crime, suicide, and deviance. Durkheim believed that sudden change caused a state of anomie. The system breaks down, either during a great prosperity or a great depression, anomie is the same result (Durkheim). Robert K. Merton, borrowed Durkheims concept of anomie to form his own theory, called Strain Theory. It differs somewhat from Durkheims in that Merton argued that the real problem is not created by a sudden social change, as Durkheim proposed, but by a social structure that holds out the same goals to all its members without giving them equal means to achieve them. He believes that it is this lack of integration between what the culture calls for and what the structure permits that causes deviant behavior. Thus deviance is a symptom of the social structure. Merton borrowed Durkheims notion of anomie to describe the breakdown of normative systems. Mertons theory does not focus on crime, but upon various acts of deviance, which may lead to criminal behavior. Merton believes that there are certain goals which are strongly emphasized by a given society. Society emphasizes certain means to reach those goals, such as education, and hard work.But not everyone has the equal access to the legitimate means to attain those goals, which sets the stage for anomie. Merton presents five modes of adapting to strain caused by the restricted access to socially approved goals and means. He didnt mean that every person that was denied legitimate means to societys goals became deviant. Instead, the modes of adaptation depends on the persons attitudes toward cultural goals and the institutional means to attain them. Conformity is the most common mode of adaptation. It occurs when a person accepts both the goals as well as the prescribed means for achieving those goals. Conformists will accept, though not always achieve, the goals of society and the means approved to achieve them. Persons that adapt through innovation accept societal goals but have few legitimate means to achieve those goals, thus they innovate their own means to get ahead, such as through robbery, or other criminal acts. In the third adaptation mode of ritualism, individuals abandon the goals they once believed to be within their reach and dedicate themselves to their current lifestyl e. Thus they play by the rules and have a daily routine that is safe. Retreatism is the adaptation of those who give up not only the goals but also the means. They usually retreat, by way of various addictions, such as alcoholism and drug abuse. They escape into a nonproductive, non-goals oriented lifestyle. The final type of adaptation is rebellion, which occurs when the cultural goals and the legitimate means are rejected. This forces the individual to create their own goals and means, such as by protest or revolutionary activities. In the 1970s, strain theory came under heavy attack after having dominated deviance research in the decade of the 1960s, prompting that it become abandoned. But, since then strain theory has survived such attacks, but has been left with diminished influence. In 1992, Robert Agnew proposed a general strain theory that focuses on at least three measures of strain. He argues that actual or anticipated failure to achieve positively valued goals, actual or anticipated removal of positively valued stimuli, and actual or anticipated presentation of negative stimuli all result in strain. Agnews strain theory focuses primarily on negative relationships with others, in that a person is not treated in a way that he expects or wants. Agnew argues that people are pressured into criminal or deviant acts by negative affective states , such as anger, which results in negative relationships with others. He argues that such negative affective states leads to pressure which then leads to illegitimate ways to attain a goal. Other strain theories explain strain in a way that relationships with others prevent one from reaching positively valued goals. They focus primarily on goal blockage, that which is often experienced by the middle or lower classes. Agnew argues that strain theory is central in explaining crime and deviance, but that it needs more revision to play a central role in sociology. His theory is written at a social-psychological level so that it focuses on a persons immediate social environment. Much of the theory is focused toward adolescent criminality, or delinquency, because so much of the data available for testing involves surveys of adolescents. He argues that his theory is capable of overcoming empirical and theoretical criticisms associated with previous strain theories. Whitney Pope et al (1981) article, Sociologys One Law, looked at Emile Durkheims theory of egoism, which says that suicide varies proportionately based on the level of integration of an individual in a given society. Such as that Protestants have a religion that is less socially integrated than that of Catholics, which leads to differing levels of suicide. Egoism is a concept that basically means lack of integration in society, and is only one part of the larger concept of anomie. For the purpose of the research Durkheim had a nominal definition that looked only at different levels of integration among two religions and the impact on suicide. Religion is the dependent variable that Durkheim used in his work. The authors add the nations level of development as a variable to see its impact on suicide. The operational definition of the concept that was used, was to look at suicide rates from Protestant and Catholic nations. The hypothesis of Durkheim was that because Catholics have a more socially integrated or controlling religion that they would have less egoistic suicide than Protestants. The theory and hypothesis was measured by use of cross national longitudinal data on suicide rates from seven Catholic, and five Protestant nations. Pope et al (1981) article compared the national, female, and male suicide rates with and without control for the nations level of development, and for four different time periods from 1919 to 1972 to draw conclusions about suicide rates at the national level. In terms of reliability the authors show that when you control for the nations level of development, there is no difference between Catholic and Protestant suicide rates, which disproves part of Durkheims theory. They do say that the application of his whole theory of integration both egoism and altruism does show that the data is consistent with his theory of variation in suicide rates. In order to test reliability the authors looked at cross national data on suicide over three different time periods. The article is clearly not totally reliable because the post World War II result s supported the hypothesis that Protestants have higher suicide rates than Catholics. The problem with validity of the suicide rates also comes into question, when one looks at the researchers that collect the data in each country because they may not define suicide the same way. Also they may not report some deaths as suicide due to the stigma associated with suicide. Likewise, some nations may not have consistently good data collection methods. Also one can call into question the validity of whether national data can be used to accurately measure an individual suicide or would the results be an ecological fallacy. Frans Van Poppel et al (1996) tests Durkheims theory of suicide without committing the ecological fallacy.They say that the data adduced by Durkheim in support of the association between religion and suicide have seldom been subject to scrutiny, and when it has been examined, the scrutiny has been based on data subject to the ecological fallacy. They use data from the Netherlands for the years 1905 to 1910, to test the statistical support for Durkheims theory about religion and suicide without committing the ecological fallacy. They find the Catholic-Protestant differential in suicide rates to be explicable entirely in terms of the practice of categorizing as sudden deaths or deaths from ill-defined or unspecified causes a large proportion of deaths among Catholics which would have been categorized as suicides had they occurred among Protestants (p.500).They say We cannot say, on the basis of this analysis, whether Durkheims or some other-sociological explanation of suicide is valid . We can say that a sociological explanation receives no support from these data: The data, although roughly contemporary with and similar to those used by Durkheim, are far superior to his because they are not subject to the risk of committing the ecological fallacy (p.506). Robert M. Fernquist (1995-96) article looks elderly suicide in Western Europe to try to show a different approach to Durkheims theory of political integration. He used data on attitudes to measue political integration, to find that political integration and suicide are negatively associated for the elderly in nine western European nations from 19 75 to 1989. Also associated with elderly suicide are the divorce rate and deaths due to cirrhosis of the liver. Religious book production was not found to be associated with suicide in the normative manner. Reasons for these associations are discussed. He says that the rate of suicide rises with age, which is consistent with the previous literature on the subject. He says that political integration, in conjunction with the economy, has been found to be associated with suicide of persons under the age of sixty-five, little is known about how it effects elderly suicide. He discusses the literature, by saying that Durkheim found that political crisis are negatively associated with suicide. Fernquist says that the political environment of western Europe from 1975 to 1989 was a time of great political unrest, with nine nations asked to vote on the unification of the European Community. He used aggregate level data to examine cross national suicide rates of persons 65 to 74, and 75 and older, and obtained age-gender specific suicide rates from the World Health Organization. Fernquist says that the only significant negative association between political integration and suicide is for females age 65 to 74, while all other independent variables are significantly correlated with suicide for each age-gender group in the expected directions. Also he finds that the divorce rate and cirrhosis of the liver are associated with increased suicide rates (p.44) In conclusion he says that the data on attitudes of the elderly toward political unification of western Europe are significantly associated with suicide (p.45-46) The findings suggest that Durkheims concept of what political integration entails could be expanded, if only in the case of the elderly, to include attitudes toward politics as well as political events themselves (p.46). Steven Stacks (1990) article on the effect of divorce on suicide in Denmark, from 1951 to 1980, looks at the effect of marital dissolution on suicide from a cultural and institutional framework different from previous studies that had focused on America. His article focuses on Denmark, which has a different cultural and institutional context than the United States. He says that a Cochrane-Orcutt iterative regression analysis replicates the American-based pattern for Denmark. The divorce index is more closely associated than the unemployment rate with changes in the suicide rate. He found that a 1% increase in divorce is associated with a .32% increase in suicide. He also found that divorce trends also predict the incidence of youth suicide. The article further confirms that the generalization that links rapid change in kinship structures to suicide in industrial societies (Stack, 1990: 359). Stack devotes a section of his paper to the theoretical perspectives dealing with the subject of marital dissolution and suicide, where he discusses Durkheim. He says that some critics of Durkheims social integration perspective, says that its not testable because he never presented an explicit denotative measure of social integration. But most of the work on divorce and suicide does employ a Durkheimian explanatory scheme, such as the one Stack uses in this present study. Durkheims theory of divorce and suicide is only a part of his larger paradigm. Durkheim constructed a theory of suicide based on the concepts of egoism, which is the lack of integration and anomie, which is the lack of regulation (Stack, 1990: 360). He discusses Durkheims position on gender differences in terms of the divorce-suicide relationship, and says that it is not altogether consistent. First Durkheim says that divorced men and women do kill themselves between three or four times more often than married persons. The data he presents clearly shows that divorce affects both genders about the same as compared to those married. But in another section of his book on Suicide, Durkheim says that women gain little from marriage, as compared to men. I would probably say that this is not a contradiction, because even though women that are single or widowed are more likely to commit suicide as his data showed, women that are married are less integrated into society as their husbands, wh o were permitted to continued social interactions outside the home. In Durkheims day most women did not work, they were isolated or restricted to the home, while the man was fee to interact in the outside world. Women were less socially integrated than men, therefore Durkheim believed that marriage did not benefit women as much as men. Critical Thinking In Decision Making Essay Unlike previous strain theories, GST focuses mainly on negative relationships with others, in that a person is not treated in a way they expect or want to be treated. Agnew argues that people are pressured into deviant or criminal acts by negative affective states, especially anger, which results in negative relationships. And that such negative affects leads to pressure which then leads to illegitimate ways to attain a goal. Other strain theories, like Mertions explain strain in a way that relationships with others prevent one from reaching positively valued goals. Other strain theories, like Merton focus mainly on goal blockage, which is most often experienced by the middle and lower class. Agnews GST is written at a social-psychological level, which is different from the social-structural levels of Durkheim and Mertion. The theory is a social-psychological level approach that lets one focus on a persons immediate social environment. The theory is mainly focused toward explaining adolescent criminality or delinquency, because much of the data available for testing it involves surveys of adolescents. Agnew thinks that GST is capable of overcoming empirical and theoretical criticisms associated with prior versions of strain theory. His theory is capable of incorporating variables from other theories like social control and differential association that have been shown in previous studies to influence deviance. He proposes several factors that determine whether a person will cope with strain in a criminal or conforming manner, including temperament, intelligence, interpersonal skills, self-efficacy, association with criminal peers, and conventional social support. The abo ve factors that are studied in other theories, and he uses them to help improve strain theory. Timothy Brezina (1996) article, Adapting to Strain, shows that strain is positively associated with the experience of several negative emotions, such as anger, resentment, and depression, and that delinquency reduces the impact of strain on those emotions. Brezina shows that delinquency is coping behavior or adaptive behavior to help adolescents to minimize the negative emotional affects of strain. The problem with the study was that the cross-sectional nature of the analyses makes it impossible to confirm the causal order implied by the hypotheses. Therefore, the cross-sectional results that support GST need to be verified with longitudinal data, which the Youth in Transition Study cannot do to test the various hypotheses. Paternoster and Mazerolle (1994) article found partial support for general strain theory. It was consistent with Agnew and Whites (1992) work, finding that negative relationships with adults, dissatisfaction with friends and school, and the experience of stressfu l events, such as family breakup or unemployment were positively related to delinquency. But they found no evidence that a broader exposure to negative stimuli causing strain was not effected by the duration of stressful events, which means that how long stressful events occur had no impact on delinquency as Agnew had argued. Contrary to Agnews expectations they also found no support that impediments to delinquent or non-delinquent strategies interact with strain, meaning that coping strategies had no effect on strain. Paternoster and Mazerolle (1994) says that general strain was positively related to subsequent delinquency regardless of level of delinquent peers, delinquent disposition, moral beliefs, self-efficacy, and conventional social support networks. They admit that other strategies to cope with strain were not discussed, such as school activities, athletics, or escapism through drug use. They was also unable to test Agnews key variable anger. In The conditional effects of stress on delinquency and drug use, Hoffman and Su (1997) found that stressful life events among female and male adolescents are similarly associated with delinquency and drug use, which shows that one key concept of Agnews GST crosses demographic lines defined by gender. They were not able to show that female interpersonal and male individualistic development models differences could predict delinquency drug use. They say that males and females may not experience different levels of strain, but that they may react to stress with different responses, such as anger for males, and depression for females. They do find that similar causal processes by males and females links stress to delinquency and drug use, but the results need to be confirmed with data from a probability sample (Hoffman and Su, 1997). The main problem with General Strain Theory is that no current data sets allow for the full testing of the above hypothesis or of all of the GST as a whole. Researchers need to collect comprehensive data on most of the measures of GST to test the importance of the theory. Future longitudinal studies should explore the causal relationship among strain, social control, differential association, and other theories to see if one or more of the theories affects the others theories. For example associations with delinquent peers (differential association), could cause negative relations and emotions to others (general strain theory), because they are labeled as delinquent (labeling theory), and therefore have limited opportunities and a reduction in positive proactive social bonds with the rest of society (social control), which limits non-delinquent coping strategies and increases the likelihood of deviance. Negative relations have a substantial effect on deviance, even when controlling for social control and differential association measures. In order to determine if strain caused delinquency, one would have to know if such things as association with deviant peers wasnt the real cause of delinquency.If a adolescent was associated with a deviant group or individual (differential association), that negative relationships could teach or promote deviance (learning theory), that could create the stigma of being deviant (labeling theory), or reduce social bonds with positive relationships, such as family, school, and church (social control theory), which leads to an increased likelihood of deviant behavior. This basically means that other theories may be the cause of deviance that leads to strain, or some of them may work together to increase the likelihood of strain when certain conditions are favorable for deviance. It could be said then that negative associations, the things learned from those negative relations, the stigma attached and the limiting of opportunities of those within those negative relations, the weakening of positive social bonds associated with those in negative relations, may all increase the likelihood that strain due to loss of positive attachments, negative relationships with negative affects, such as anger, and frustration could lead to an increased likelihood of deviance. Strain may then be only one of many factors that acts in collaboration with multiple direct variables to increase the likelihood of deviance and crime. Positive social bonds and the positive labeling, and positive relationships that would result from such proactive empathetic bonds, would reduce the likelihood of strain, and even in cases of strain, would provide a strong support network that could provide positive coping strategies that would result in non-deviant responses to stressful life events. Clearly the majority of articles that I have reviewed leads me to conclude that anomie theory, classic strain theory, and general strain theory all find support with some criticism. The main problem is that certain key variables of the theories have not been studied, and the conceptual framework of other studies has misinterpreted the key concepts of the theory. Some say that most of the research on anomie and then on classical strain failed to falsify the theories because they had not really been tested to prove or disprove key concepts. Clearly further research studies are needed that focus on the key concepts of strain, and better methodological data sets need to be developed to test the new theories of strain as well. Also longitudinal studies should be used to avoid the problem of causal order resulting from cross-sectional studies. The theories may need some modifications in terms of the variables that cause crime, but the theory still shows that it has withstood decades of cr iticism and offers important insights to the causes of crime in society. Williams III and McShane (1999) says that policy implications are easy to draw from anomie and strain theories; putting them into practice is another manner entirely (p.103). Since anomie is a macro-level theory, the proper form of policy would be aimed at modifying the social structure, such as to eliminate the class structures, racism, and prejudice, all of which are factors working to limit the opportunities for reaching goals (Williams and McShane, 1999: 103). Other recommended approaches includes programs to provide increased job opportunities, such as the Depression era work programs, and many government programs created in the 1960s aimed at increasing opportunities for meaningful work to help the poor. Also more educational opportunities would be favored under strain theory. From the perspective of Agnews strain theory, finding ways to decrease negative relationships in families, schools, and neighborh oods, would be a reasonable approach to reduce strain. A final policy approach offered by Ruth Kornhauser (1978) as well as Steve Brown, Fin Esbensen, and Gil Geis (1991) have suggested that a policy implication of anomie theory would be to reduce aspirations that cause strain for those unable to achieve them. One could say that the American Dream is over, but no one would accept a loss of aspirations, and crime is not the worst ill in society. Anomie theory accepts that crime is a normal part of society. The Merton-Durkheim theory of anomie, and related theories of strain and control, continue, to provide important orienting perspectives within criminology, deviance, and the sociology of law (Abrahamson, 1996: 249). REFERENCESAbrahamson, Mark. 1996. Criminology, deviance, law The Legacy of Anomie Theory edited by Freda Adler and William S. Laufer. CONTEMPORARY SOCIOLOGY, Vol.25, No.2, pp.249-250. Agnew, Robert. 1992. Foundations For A General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency, CRIMINOLOGY, Vol. 30, pp.47-87. Agnew, Robert; Cullen, Francis T.; Burton Jr., Velmer S.; Evans, T. David; and Dunaway, R. Gregory. 1996. A New Test Of Classical Strain Theory, JUSTICE QUARTERLY, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp.681-701. Agnew, Robert, and White, Helen. 1992. An Empirical Test of General Strain Theory, CRIMINOLOGY, Vol. 30, pp.475-499. Breault, K.D. and Barkey, Karen. 1982. A Comparative Analysis of Durkheims Theory Of Egoisitic Suicide, THE SOCIOLOGICAL QUARTERLY, Vol. 23, pp.321-331. _______, 1983. Durkheim Scholarship and Suicidology: Different Ways of Doing Research in History of Social Thought and Different Interpretations of Durkheims Suicide, THE SOCIOLOGICAL QUARTERLY, Vol.24, pp.629-632. Brezina, Timothy. 1996. Adapting To Strain: An Examination Of Delinquent Coping Responses, CRIMINOLOGY, Vol.34, No.1, pp.39-59. Camp, Sarah. Robert K. Mertons Anomie Theory, http://www.criminology.fsu.edu/faculty/greek/courses/merton.htmClinard, M.B. 1968. ANOMIE AND DEVIANT BEHAVIOR. 4th Ed. The Free Press. Durkheim, Emile. 1893. The Division of Labor in Society. New York: The Free Press. ________, 1951. SUICIDE, The Free Press. Farnworth, Margaret and Leiber, Michael J. 1989. Strain Theory Revisted: Economic Goals, Educational Means, and Delinquency, AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW, Vol. 54, pp.263-274Fernquist, Robert M. 1995-96. Elderly Suicide in Western Europe 1975-1989: A Different Approach to Durkheims Theory of Political Integration, OMEGA, Vol.32, No.1, pp.39-48. Hoffman, John P. and Su, Susan S. 1997. The Conditional Effects of Stress on Delinquency and Drug Use: A Strain Theory Assessment of Sex Differences, JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CRIME AND DELINQUENCY. Vol. 34, pp.46-78. Menard, Scott. 1995. A Developmental Test of Mertonian Anomie Theory, JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CRIME AND DELINQUENCY, Vol.32, pp.136-174. Morrison, Ken 1995. MARX, DURKHEIM, WEBER: Formations of Modern Social Social Thought. Sage Publications. Paternoster, Raymond and Mazerolle, Paul. 1994. General Strain Theory And Delinquency: A Replication and Extension, JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CRIME AND DELINQUENCY, Vol. 31, pp. 235-263. Pescosolido, Bernice A. 1990. The Social Context Of Religious Integration and Suicide: Pursuing the Network Explanation. THE SOCIOLOGICAL QUARTERLY, Vol.31, No. 3, pp. 337-357. Pope, Whitney and Danigelis, Nick. 1981. Sociologys One Law, SOCIAL FORCES Vol. 60, No. 2, pp. 495-516. Reid, S.T. 1979. CRIME AND CRIMINOLOGY. Prentice-Hall. Stack, Steven. 1983. A Comparative Analysis of Durkheims Theory of Egoistic Suicide: A Comment, THE SOCIOLOGICAL QUARTERLY, Vol. 24, pp.625-628. _________, 1990. The Effect Of Divorce On Suicide In Denmark, 1951-1980. THE SOCIOLOGICAL QUARTERLY, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 359-370. Travis, Robert. 1990. Halbwachs and Durkheim: A Test Of Two Theories of Suicide, BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY (BJS), Vol. 41, No. 2Van Poppel, Frans, and Day, Lincoln H. 1996. A Test of Durkheims Theory of Suicide Without Committing the Ecological Fallacy, AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW, Vol. 61, No. 3, pp. 500-507. Williams III, Frank P. and McShane, Marilyn D. 1999. CRIMINOLOGY THEORY. 3rd Ed. Prentice Hall. See Chapter 6 on Anomie Theory. (Note: Research Paper Written Dec. 10, 1998 for Graduate Credit at Morehead State Universtiy, by Brent Monroe Pergram, who received a Masters of Arts in General Sociology May 2000)

Land Acquisition and Statutory Valuation

Question: Discuss about the Land Acquisition and Statutory Valuation. Answer: Facts of Infrastructure at Lappington There are number of projects undertaken, in the eastern part of the Leppington and in the northern part of the Leppington. This work will come to the conclusion in the year 2022. They started the building up of infrastructure of waste water. In Austral it will complete by the year 2016, in the eastern part of Leppington, it will complete by the year 2015, at the northern part of the Leppington, the trunk infrastructure will get complete at the end of 2018. The Stages of development depends upon the infrastructure of waste water. There is availability of sufficient water in the precincts and the infrastructure is having enough capacity for the development. The timing to develop the land depends upon the owner of the land to sell. There is more demand with the availability of sewer, electricity as well as the supply of land. Sydney water and endeavour energy is providing the infrastructure for the purpose of urban development. With the increase in the demand for the new residence, more provision shall be made for the infrastructure. For dwelling on the land, development application for the council may be considered. The minimum density standard shall be applicable. At Leppington, the land is used for the infrastructure at water sewerage and can be used for the development of the land. It helps in building the suitable infrastructure that will help in the development of the country. Thus, it is one of the important factor that need to be considered. Explanations Development application is considered depending upon the development of land. It will depend upon the control of new planning. For submitting the development application, the following points need to be considered- The sub division that shows the manner in which land is required to be developed. There need to be sufficient space for the disposal of sewerage for the provision of sewer infrastructure at the Sydney water. All the planning requirements are met Type of development Charging schedule Residential $75 per square metre Retail $75 per square metre Commercial and non residential Nil There are 17350 homes detached the homes and the residence in the rural areas. There are 54000 of residents in the centre of the town of Leppington. For the confirmation of zoning, certificate under section 149 is important. The information relating to the zoning of the property is provided under section 149 (2) of the certificate. Section 149 (5) provides all the information and advice from the authorities. (South West Rail Link, 2005) In a Lappington, the levy is charged based on the net gain of the floor space expressed in terms of the dollar in per square metre. Such levy is collected within 60 days from the date of the commencement. (Stuff, 2015) Chargeable amount scale Payment time For less than $25000 Amount to be paid in full at the time of commencement Between $25000 to 100000 Amount to be paid in one third at the time of commencement one third after the completion of 9 months from the date of commencement. At first occupation, one third is paid For first occupation full amount is paid Amount more than $100000 At the time of commencement, one third is paid one third after the completion of 12 months from the date of commencement. At first occupation, one third is paid For first occupation full amount is paid According to Regulation 123, the projects and the infrastructure types that the CIL income will fund will be included in it. The infrastructure project at Lappington are not funded from the CIL income and are funded through section 106. It is clearly set out in the Regulation 123 as to which all infrastructures shall be funded through CIL income and the infrastructures that will be excluded from the CIL income. (Committee meeting of Joint Legislative Committee on Economic Recovery, 1994) At Lappington, It is necessary to collect the Strategic access management and maintenance element with the help of section 106. If the necessary amount is not provided, it shall be considered as the refusal of the application for planning. If the development is of 10 dwelling, it shall be liable for the contribution of housing under section 106. Before the grant of the permission for planning, the council needs to comply with the requirement of the agreement under section 106. (Hecht,2006) Railway is the very important infrastructure of Lappington. Business and jobs in Lappington is miserably suffers if the services of railway are inefficient. Linking of railways with the port and airport helps to create business opportunity. Use of more railway in Lappington helps to bring reduction in the carbon. The Transport and Work Act 1992 consist of the power to construct as well as operate the railway. Government decision with regards to the contribution towards the infrastructure of the Lappington will depend upon the evaluation, appraisal as well as the modeling. (Ranade, 2009) For proper planning of infrastructure in Lappington, mathematical tools are used to analyse the transport system. Guidance is improved by the government with the help of research. (Ofori,2011) The government of Lappington can help in funding the infrastructure through its treasury. Rail in Lappington will be the most important alternative to reach to business hub. The development of residential areas 60 kms away from the business hub will help to attract more number of passengers towards the railway. Government decided to fund the CRL. Construction of rail in Lappington will be the long term plan as it will exceed three years based on the premises where the construction will take place.(Hassell, 2003) For the construction of the infrastructure at Lappington, there is a need for two criteria- one is the patronage towards the railway and the another one is the development of the employment opportunities. It is necessary to get the approval of finance minister, prime minister and the transport minister for the construction of infrastructure in the Lappington. (Yasui, 2002) It is necessary to announce sprawl subsidies to provide additional fund for the motorway. Dynamic centre of urban area and the development of infrastructure area are likely to create more demand for the infrastructure in the Lappington. A city rail link of 3.4 km will be constructed. Installation of a storm water pipe need to be done. CRL will take more than three years to build. A deal is made with the private company to build tunnel underneath. The cross rail accommodate 5000 homes and around 22000 jobs. If there is failure to generate the land, it will directly have its impact on the vision for the areas. The cost for the relocation of the rail will be borne by the value of the land. At the rail depot, a cost of $300 will be assumed and at the IEP depot, a cost of $150 will be assumed. It will be the alternative for the relocation of both the depots of the holding up of the public sector land. Growth of population at Lappington shows the dealing with the new town. Increase in homes increases the need for social infrastructure. Such social infrastructures are the schools, play space, etc. With the increase in the population of residents, there is increase in the demand for the utilities infrastructure. It includes the cost on the combination of heat and the powerful network. Utilities company will charge from the customers for the use of heat and power but the developer need to pay for their share. Infrastructure at Lappington is funded based on the housing policy. The single funding stream is the community infrastructure levy. Receipt of CIL is balanced with that of the requirements for affordable housing. We can set the infrastructure cost based on the funding available from the affordable housing. It is estimated that up to year 2020 there will be more demand for the bridge as well as the road investment. For the purpose of CIL evidence and to deliver the local infrastructure requirement, more focus need to be given on the growth of jobs and homes. There has been utilities of $ 251416 and transport of $ 831500 Possible receipt can be calculated with the help of delivery of infrastructure by direct developer through sec 106, section 278, CIL and the planning process. After the policy cost and the development cost is paid, it is necessary to understand the receipt of developers at Lappington. Process of master planning helps to gain significant infrastructure delivery amount. Developers are contributing towards the infrastructure with the help of S106 forms which plays an important role in infrastructure funding. CIL funding depends upon the affordable houses. Pool of developer contributions are funding the affordable houses, CIL and S106. This pool is normally finite. If there is more demand for the affordable housing, there will be less CIL that will be afforded. Here in this case, the cost that is known is set with the cost that is funded that will help in making the funding gap apparent and the CIL can be levied accordingly. (Housing And Urban Development Department, 2015) The funding gap can be closed in the following manner Setting up of over ground station with the TfL and DfT. The requirement for affordable housing at Lappington can be reduced in order to increase the intermediate. It is possible to take loans from the government of Lappington. Tax increment financing is possible where, raising up of fund is done against the CIL income stream and the business rate. It is necessary to deal with the issues relating to planning, decision making with the implications that are reaching far away. This is going to be the challenging situation. It is necessary to bring the expert help in such a process. Large areas of land are coming under the public sector. If handled properly, they are going to bring more economic return to the tax payer of Lappington. Thus, encourages the economic development of the Lappington. Income can be gained from the utilities supply. Community development is possible with the help of income from utilities and the ground rent. It is necessary to narrow down the gap between the funding and the cash flow. Investment in transport helps to bring economic benefits. It is a part of TIF application and also create funding for the government of Lappington. It is necessary to make proper placement of CIL and S106. It is necessary to have the knowledge what the developer are exactly paying on the contribution towards the infrastructure at Lappington. Policy relating to the CIL and S106 should be communication clearly. It is necessary to keep the strategy and the policy of planning flexible. (Housing And Urban Development Department, 2015) Delivery of a project need to be properly planned. Identifying the critical path, resolving the issues, roles and the responsibilities need to be clarified. Time sequence issues which will help to focus on the short term and medium term issues. This will help in clarifying the decision to be taken. Transport infrastructure is the costliest infrastructure. It is necessary to develop detailed idea about the same. Construction of a rail is having its impact on the transport of Lappington. This influence the phasing. 25000 homes, 56000 jobs will be delivered by 2050 with an average delivery of resident of 700 per year- There has been rise in the housing output of Lappington. The cost of rail infrastructure at Lappington and the car park will be around $ 75m. Building Information Modelling is used to enhance the efficiency in the delivery of the infrastructure at Lappington. This provides the benefits of controlling the cost, investment in cash flow ,sequencing for the intelligent site, and the delivery coordination. Smart city technique can be used that will benefit the residents as well as the business. Infrastructural cost support the development of the homes as well as the jobs. Infrastructure cost of Lappington includes tailored cost and the cost of maintenance, etc. (Housing And Urban Development Department, 2015) The cost that is assumed for the acquisition of the site $2m / acre + 30% or the land and building with value of +30% whichever is highest. Land at Lappington can be obtained for the new depot from the Network Rail Estate. After the identification of the final cost that is $ 300m, it is then factored into the cost of development of the land. $ 300 m is the figure of high level. It is changed when the work is feasible and the relocation of the depot is done. Before the public examination is done, CIL is set. In order to understand the CIL, it is necessary to understand the delivery and which piece will be delivered by whom. 20% of the affordable housing will be provided. With the improvement in the PTAL, the sales value increases, which increases the CIL charges. The connection through rail will alter the geographical area. (Housing And Urban Development Department, 2015) Development Infrastructure funding studies of Lappington helps to spread the information, the planning process that is complex by nature is coordinated, proper guidance to the place of market and the social benefits are clarified with the help of proper investment. It is necessary to focus on the following factors Growth of the requirement for infrastructure at Lappington. The time when there will be a rise in the demand for the infrastructure at Lappington. The cost of the infrastructure requirements of Lappington. The payment of the Lappington infrastructure so required. National Plan Policy Framework is undertaken which focuses on the various points NPPF focuses on the quality as well as the capacity of the infrastructure of Lappington. The infrastructure of Lappington should meet the forecasted demand. Local Planning Authorities should understand the importance of development cost according to the NPPF. The infrastructure should deliver in the fashioned time. It is necessary to find out the time of the cost incurred and whether the funding is available when the actual cost is incurred. The amount of infrastructure of the Lappington should be affordable in order to support the plan. (Yasui, 2002) Rates are built based on the traditional housing products absorption. Annual output of around 700 homes are averaged. This number can be made known with the help of discussion with the developer. Housing output accelerate per annum. Different market segments can be used to reach the products to the consumers. Infrastructure at Lappington is needed for the purpose of development. Infrastructure creates serviced and accessible sites. It includes internal access such as rail to the sites, sewage, telecoms and gas, etc. 1. Developers at Lappington are required to pay levy towards the land as well as construction. This will directly have its impact on the rate. As, the developer will add the cost that he has incurred in the total cost of housing that increases the overall cost. The cost for infrastructure at Lappington is incurred by the state and local government. It is financed by the government of Lappington as per S106 form, S 123 and CIL. The procedure is discussed above. Development of the sites can be done by the developer with the help of the financial models. Assessment of the infrastructure can be done based on the assessment of the external costs which will be at the rate of development by per square foot. If the infrastructure cost exceed a particular level, it can be considered normal. Thus, infrastructure plays a vital role in the development of housing and the development of the country. It links the various parts of the country. (Yasui, 2002) 2. Section 50 of the constitution of Australia deals with the law of the acquisition of the land. These laws are made by the Parliament. It is both the power as well as the guarantee from the constitution. All the powers of making the law and order are given to the parliament with respect to the acquisition of land. Law relating to the acquisition of land is the guarantee of contingency rather than that of the acquisition of land. Land Acquisition Act 1969, is enforceable. `Pre acquisition declaration is lodged containing the details with regards to the acquisition of the land with the Registrar of titles. Common wealth intention is required to be informed to the buyers of Lappington. The Registrar of titles deals with the declaration of acquisition. Compensation is paid for the pre acquisition of land and proper approval need to be obtained from the common wealth. Interest on the amount of compensation is calculated. There is need to follow suitable step on the calculation of intere st. Interest on land is acquired by the common wealth government under the land acquisition act, 1989. It is necessary to protect the interest of the common wealth. Common wealth decision is made with respect to the acquisition of land at Lappington. Common wealth decision is passed with respect to the acquisition of the interest in the land. Professional advice is given to the government of Lappington. Compensation for the acquisition and the interest in land of Lappington is made to the commonwealth. The act is administered by the minister of finance and the deregulation. The day to day administration is carried out by them. The act is based on acquisition of interest in land at Lappington. It includes the owning up of land, land on mortgage, lessee and licensing and the title interest, etc. The acquisition of land is made through acquisition that is compulsory, negotiable agreement and the acquisition on an urgent basis. Deduction $75m (Rail project cost) / 3000 new lots = $25,000 levy per lot The cost that is assumed for the acquisition of the site $2m / acre + 30% or the land and building with value of +30% whichever is highest. Cost Rail Project and Car Park 75 Value of land For 750m2 $275,000 For 75m it will be 27500 Value of business for 200 m2 $250,000 for 75m it will be 9375 The rubbish waste and the local water supply $580 The average rate of business property excluding the above $1,250 Farm Rate $700 There will be total expenditure of 302530 References Jain, A. (n.d.). Revisiting land acquisition and urban process. Chapin, T. and Coutts, C. (2011). Growth management and public land acquisition. Burlington, vt.: Ashgate. Ramachandran, V. (1969). The law of land acquisition and compensation, lucknow: Eastern Book Co. South West Rail Link. (2005). Sydney, NSW: Dept. of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources. Picot, A. (n.d.). The economies of infrastructure provisioninig. Grimsey, D. and Lewis, M. (2004). Public Private Partnership. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. Spiegelglas, S. and Welsh, C. (1970). Economic development. Englewood cliffs, N. J. Prentice- Hall. Committee meeting of Joint Legislative Committee on Economic Recovery: (1994). Trenton, N.J.: The Committee. Ranade, P. (2009). Infrastructure development and its environmental impact.New Delhi: Concept Pub.Co. Hecht, B. (2006). Developing affordable housing. Hoboken N.J. John Wiley Sons. Ofori, G. (2011). Contemporary Issues in Construction in Developing Countries. Hoboken: Taylor Francis. Hassell, S. (2003). Building better homes. Santa Monica, CA: RAND. Yasui, T. (2002). Housing finance in transition economies, Paris: OECD. Housing And Urban Development Department , (2015). Code of federal regulations, title 24- parts 200-499, housing urban development hud. [Place of publication not identified]: Housing Urban development.