The Drama Of Scripture Written By Bartholomew And Goheen...

The Drama of Scripture written by Bartholomew and Goheen takes the reader on a journey through the entire Bible in six short â€Å"acts.† The first Act discusses creation and the establishment of God’s Kingdom. In the beginning was complete darkness. Then, God created light and divided the heavens and the earth. He then split the waters and the seas, creating dry ground on which the rest of creation could walk. He proceeded to make plants and flowers and the sun, moon, and stars. He created days and seasons and animals of all shapes and sizes. And then, to add the finishing touch, God created men and women, male and female, He created them. The book states that â€Å"the Genesis story is given so that we might have a true understanding of the world in which we live, its divine author, and our own place in it† (Bartholomew, 29). Genesis 1-3, the story of Creation, is prevalent because it introduces the author of creation, humanity, and the creation upon which huma nity’s drama unfolds. God does not hold Himself distant from His creation, but He embraces it; He walks with it. He engages with that which He created. The story of Creation shows that the author of it all is personal, intimate, and cares about what He created. Act one gives us a glimpse of how the world was supposed to be; a beautiful, intimate, God –in –the –midst life of perfect satisfaction with the absence of sin. However, this all crumbled in Act two when Adam and Eve decided to disobey God and take their lives intoShow MoreRelatedA Research Study On Liberty University School Of Divinity Essay1646 Words   |  7 Pagescontext in order to achieve at the biblical message of this ancient book. __________________ 1. Unless otherwise noted all biblical references are in NIV Bible (London: Hodder Stoughton, 2000 1. CONTEXT The book of Colossians was written between A.D. 58-62; the location of the church was located in the Lycus river valley of west central Asia Minor. Historically this setting was not very significant; however, â€Å"it became to be known for its prominence with textiles and the centrality

Emotional And Emotional Effects Of Domestic Violence

Domestic violence, or as Daigle calls it, intimate partner violence, comes in different forms. One of these forms is intimate terrorism, which involves severe, persistent and frequent abuse that tends to get worse as time goes on. The abusive partner needs to feel like he or she has the power and control of the relationship. This type of intimate partner violence is likely to result in serious injury, the worst of which is death. Another kind of intimate partner violence is situational couple violence, also known as common couple violence. The couple will get into an argument, it will blow up and get out of control, and it will end with violence. These arguments do not usually start out violent; instead, these arguments are over every day things that a lot of couples argue about, like money. Although this form does not typically result in anyone getting seriously injured, it is likely to result in psychological and emotional damage over time. The third form is called violent resistan ce. In this form, the person may be violent, but he or she is not controlling of their partner. Their partner on the other hand, may be both violent and controlling. This is not a good mix. The last form is mutual violent control. In this form, both partners are both violent and controlling. Two people together like that can be deadly. So what do we consider an intimate partner? An intimate partner is a husband or wife, a girlfriend or boyfriend, an ex-husband or ex-wife, or even just someoneShow MoreRelatedPsychological And Emotional Effects Of Domestic Violence986 Words   |  4 Pagescases, they are killed by a family member or intimate partner. Domestic violence is typically the aggressive or violent behavior in a household that involves the physical abuse of a spouse or partner. Physical abuse is one of the major ways men control the behavior of women. More than 4 million women experience physical assault and rape by their partners. The abuser may also do other acts of violenc e such as psychological and/or emotional abuse that includes intimidation, threats, isolations and etcRead MoreDomestic Violence : Violence Between Adult Intimate Partners1632 Words   |  7 PagesDomestic Violence Introduction Domestic Violence isn t just hitting, or fighting, or an occasional mean argument. It s a chronic abuse of power. The abuser tortures and controls the victim by calculated threats, intimidation, and physical violence. Actual physical violence is often the end result of months or years of intimidation and control. Defining the problem: Domestic violence is violence between adult intimate partners. Though the definition above seems simple enough (it is widely acceptedRead MoreDomestic Violence Is A Crisis1171 Words   |  5 Pageswith our eyes closed towards the crisis of domestic violence. A study done showed that every nine seconds a women is beaten or assaulted (â€Å"Statistics†). The time that it has taken you to read to this point is the time it has taken for a women to be hit by this crisis. Yet, so many think that the concern for domestic violence is over-exaggerated. Many think that there are so many other epidemics going on that should take precedence over domestic violence. Besides worrying about these epidemics, itRead MoreAll around the world domestic violence is a threat to all different types of families, including1000 Words   |  4 Pagesworld domestic violence is a threat to all different types of families, including children and adults. â€Å"It is estimated that approximately 3 million incidents of domestic violence are reported each year in the Un ited States† (Feinstein). The most common victims of domestic violence are women, and children. Organizations that offers protection for victims includes: National Network to End Domestic Violence, Survivor Network, and National Council on Child Abuse and Family Violence. Domestic violenceRead MoreEmotional And Emotional Domestic Violence993 Words   |  4 PagesEmotional Domestic Violence Eric Easter American Military University â€Æ' Emotional Domestic Violence Abstract Emotional abuse includes non-physical behaviors like threats, insults, constant observance or checking in,† excessive texting, humiliation, intimidation, isolation or stalking. Several program define emotional domestic violence from verbal to physical abuse. The discovery we tend to created is that the key to a successful outcome with abusive relationships is recognizing the psychopathologyRead MoreDomestic Abuse And Substance Abuse1546 Words   |  7 PagesDomestic abuse and substance in a family can traumatize any children going through this outbreak. Spouses, parents, stepparents, children, siblings, elderly relatives, and intimate partners may all be targets of domestic/substance abuse. Domestic violence is the most risk factor impacting a child’s social, emotional, and physical wellbeing. Violence, aggression, and substance abuse between members of the family have been continued patterns of family life. I want to see the outcome of how childrenRead MoreDomestic Ab use Essay1497 Words   |  6 PagesChild and domestic abuse is a serious matter which needs to have additional focus, especially in this day and age. Abuse is most often causes harm to others. Abuse may either be verbal, emotional, or physical or times all three. In today’s society there are many different types of abuse including, physical, sexual, emotional, psychological, and neglect. All these types of abuse can affect people in multiple different ways, creating anywhere from short term to long term notable effects in the personRead MoreLong-Term Consequences of Childhood Exposure to Domestic Violence948 Words   |  4 PagesConsequences of Childhood Exposure to Domestic Violence Abstract: Domestic violence effects everybody in a family. Patterns of abuse from one parent to another, between both parents or directed toward a child all have a composite effect of inflicting potentially severe emotional damage upon the child. The research outlined here identifies domestic violence as a serious sociological problem and consequently provides a usable definition of domestic violence for the present study. This is followedRead MoreThe Effects Of Domestic Violence On Children1387 Words   |  6 Pages Literature Review: The Effects of Domestic Violence on Children By Taralyn Dean SW 8570 March 11, 2015 Introduction Today this paper will be exploring the affects of intimate partner domestic violence and how this impacts the children. The children of theses situations are the bystanders of these physical and emotional events. This paper will review in depth what other professionals are saying about the children of the domestic violence relationships and also the findings andRead MoreThe Effects Of Intimate Partner Violence On Children Essay811 Words   |  4 Pages The effects of intimate partner violence are attenuating and extend far beyond physical scarring. The abuse of woman and children has been researched extensively by Rachel Pain (2014, p. 536) as acts of â€Å"terrorism within the home†. If we are to compare the experience of women and children living in violent homes and the act of ‘terrorism’ itself we get a corresponding experience (Pain, 2014, p. 546). The construction of fear, the loss of identity, the ongoing distress of constantly feeling unsafe

Emile Durkheim Anomie or Strain Theory Essay Example For Students

Emile Durkheim Anomie or Strain Theory Essay DURKHEIM AND ANOMIE OR STRAIN THEORYby Brent M. Pergram, Masers of Arts in Sociology Emile Durkheim is the founder of the study of anomie theory or strain theory that believes that anomie or strain causes a person to commit suicide or some other deviant act. This research paper will discuss several articles that deal with strain theory and with Durkheims theory of anomie. I will also discuss articles on Mertons strain theory, and on Agnews General Strain Theory that expands the concept of strain. Durkheim is the founder of anomie theory, but Merton, and later Agnew made changes to the theory to try to make it a general theory that could explain most types of deviance. Anomie is a concept that is associated with two theorists, Emile Durkheim and RobertMerton.Durkheim introduced the term in his 1893 book The Division of Labor in Society, when he described it as a condition of deregulation occurring in society. This occurs when the general rules of a society have broken down and that pe ople no longer know what to expect from one another. It is this state of normlessness or deregulation in society that leads to deviant behavior. Durkheim used the term anomie again in his classic 1897 book Suicide, referring to a morally deregulated condition were people have inadequate moral control over their actions. Therefore, a given society may be anomic if people do not know when to stop striving for success, or how to treat others along the way. Regardless of which of these two descriptions of anomie one uses, a brake down in either the rules of society or the moral norms, Durkheim clearly meant to describe a disruption or normal societal conditions.Durkheim was preoccupied with the effects of social change. Durkheim best illustrated his concept of anomie not in a discussion of crime but of suicide. In the Division of Labor in Society, Durkheim proposed two concepts. First, that societies evolved from a simple, non-specialized form, called mechanical, toward a highly complex, specialized form, called organic. In a simple mechanical society people behave and think alike, and basically perform the same work tasks and have the same group-oriented goals. When societies become more complex, or organic, work also becomes more complex. In an organic society, people are no longer tied to one another and social bonds are impersonal. Thus anomie refers to a breakdown of social norms and is a condition where norms no longer control the activities of members in society. The individuals in society cannot find their place in it, without clear rules to help guide them. Changing conditions in society as well as adjustment of life leads to dissatisfaction, conflict, and deviance. Durkheim observed that social periods of disruption, such as economic depression lead to increased levels of anomie and higher rates of crime, suicide, and deviance. Durkheim believed that sudden change caused a state of anomie. The system breaks down, either during a great prosperity or a great depression, anomie is the same result (Durkheim). Robert K. Merton, borrowed Durkheims concept of anomie to form his own theory, called Strain Theory. It differs somewhat from Durkheims in that Merton argued that the real problem is not created by a sudden social change, as Durkheim proposed, but by a social structure that holds out the same goals to all its members without giving them equal means to achieve them. He believes that it is this lack of integration between what the culture calls for and what the structure permits that causes deviant behavior. Thus deviance is a symptom of the social structure. Merton borrowed Durkheims notion of anomie to describe the breakdown of normative systems. Mertons theory does not focus on crime, but upon various acts of deviance, which may lead to criminal behavior. Merton believes that there are certain goals which are strongly emphasized by a given society. Society emphasizes certain means to reach those goals, such as education, and hard work.But not everyone has the equal access to the legitimate means to attain those goals, which sets the stage for anomie. Merton presents five modes of adapting to strain caused by the restricted access to socially approved goals and means. He didnt mean that every person that was denied legitimate means to societys goals became deviant. Instead, the modes of adaptation depends on the persons attitudes toward cultural goals and the institutional means to attain them. Conformity is the most common mode of adaptation. It occurs when a person accepts both the goals as well as the prescribed means for achieving those goals. Conformists will accept, though not always achieve, the goals of society and the means approved to achieve them. Persons that adapt through innovation accept societal goals but have few legitimate means to achieve those goals, thus they innovate their own means to get ahead, such as through robbery, or other criminal acts. In the third adaptation mode of ritualism, individuals abandon the goals they once believed to be within their reach and dedicate themselves to their current lifestyl e. Thus they play by the rules and have a daily routine that is safe. Retreatism is the adaptation of those who give up not only the goals but also the means. They usually retreat, by way of various addictions, such as alcoholism and drug abuse. They escape into a nonproductive, non-goals oriented lifestyle. The final type of adaptation is rebellion, which occurs when the cultural goals and the legitimate means are rejected. This forces the individual to create their own goals and means, such as by protest or revolutionary activities. In the 1970s, strain theory came under heavy attack after having dominated deviance research in the decade of the 1960s, prompting that it become abandoned. But, since then strain theory has survived such attacks, but has been left with diminished influence. In 1992, Robert Agnew proposed a general strain theory that focuses on at least three measures of strain. He argues that actual or anticipated failure to achieve positively valued goals, actual or anticipated removal of positively valued stimuli, and actual or anticipated presentation of negative stimuli all result in strain. Agnews strain theory focuses primarily on negative relationships with others, in that a person is not treated in a way that he expects or wants. Agnew argues that people are pressured into criminal or deviant acts by negative affective states , such as anger, which results in negative relationships with others. He argues that such negative affective states leads to pressure which then leads to illegitimate ways to attain a goal. Other strain theories explain strain in a way that relationships with others prevent one from reaching positively valued goals. They focus primarily on goal blockage, that which is often experienced by the middle or lower classes. Agnew argues that strain theory is central in explaining crime and deviance, but that it needs more revision to play a central role in sociology. His theory is written at a social-psychological level so that it focuses on a persons immediate social environment. Much of the theory is focused toward adolescent criminality, or delinquency, because so much of the data available for testing involves surveys of adolescents. He argues that his theory is capable of overcoming empirical and theoretical criticisms associated with previous strain theories. Whitney Pope et al (1981) article, Sociologys One Law, looked at Emile Durkheims theory of egoism, which says that suicide varies proportionately based on the level of integration of an individual in a given society. Such as that Protestants have a religion that is less socially integrated than that of Catholics, which leads to differing levels of suicide. Egoism is a concept that basically means lack of integration in society, and is only one part of the larger concept of anomie. For the purpose of the research Durkheim had a nominal definition that looked only at different levels of integration among two religions and the impact on suicide. Religion is the dependent variable that Durkheim used in his work. The authors add the nations level of development as a variable to see its impact on suicide. The operational definition of the concept that was used, was to look at suicide rates from Protestant and Catholic nations. The hypothesis of Durkheim was that because Catholics have a more socially integrated or controlling religion that they would have less egoistic suicide than Protestants. The theory and hypothesis was measured by use of cross national longitudinal data on suicide rates from seven Catholic, and five Protestant nations. Pope et al (1981) article compared the national, female, and male suicide rates with and without control for the nations level of development, and for four different time periods from 1919 to 1972 to draw conclusions about suicide rates at the national level. In terms of reliability the authors show that when you control for the nations level of development, there is no difference between Catholic and Protestant suicide rates, which disproves part of Durkheims theory. They do say that the application of his whole theory of integration both egoism and altruism does show that the data is consistent with his theory of variation in suicide rates. In order to test reliability the authors looked at cross national data on suicide over three different time periods. The article is clearly not totally reliable because the post World War II result s supported the hypothesis that Protestants have higher suicide rates than Catholics. The problem with validity of the suicide rates also comes into question, when one looks at the researchers that collect the data in each country because they may not define suicide the same way. Also they may not report some deaths as suicide due to the stigma associated with suicide. Likewise, some nations may not have consistently good data collection methods. Also one can call into question the validity of whether national data can be used to accurately measure an individual suicide or would the results be an ecological fallacy. Frans Van Poppel et al (1996) tests Durkheims theory of suicide without committing the ecological fallacy.They say that the data adduced by Durkheim in support of the association between religion and suicide have seldom been subject to scrutiny, and when it has been examined, the scrutiny has been based on data subject to the ecological fallacy. They use data from the Netherlands for the years 1905 to 1910, to test the statistical support for Durkheims theory about religion and suicide without committing the ecological fallacy. They find the Catholic-Protestant differential in suicide rates to be explicable entirely in terms of the practice of categorizing as sudden deaths or deaths from ill-defined or unspecified causes a large proportion of deaths among Catholics which would have been categorized as suicides had they occurred among Protestants (p.500).They say We cannot say, on the basis of this analysis, whether Durkheims or some other-sociological explanation of suicide is valid . We can say that a sociological explanation receives no support from these data: The data, although roughly contemporary with and similar to those used by Durkheim, are far superior to his because they are not subject to the risk of committing the ecological fallacy (p.506). Robert M. Fernquist (1995-96) article looks elderly suicide in Western Europe to try to show a different approach to Durkheims theory of political integration. He used data on attitudes to measue political integration, to find that political integration and suicide are negatively associated for the elderly in nine western European nations from 19 75 to 1989. Also associated with elderly suicide are the divorce rate and deaths due to cirrhosis of the liver. Religious book production was not found to be associated with suicide in the normative manner. Reasons for these associations are discussed. He says that the rate of suicide rises with age, which is consistent with the previous literature on the subject. He says that political integration, in conjunction with the economy, has been found to be associated with suicide of persons under the age of sixty-five, little is known about how it effects elderly suicide. He discusses the literature, by saying that Durkheim found that political crisis are negatively associated with suicide. Fernquist says that the political environment of western Europe from 1975 to 1989 was a time of great political unrest, with nine nations asked to vote on the unification of the European Community. He used aggregate level data to examine cross national suicide rates of persons 65 to 74, and 75 and older, and obtained age-gender specific suicide rates from the World Health Organization. Fernquist says that the only significant negative association between political integration and suicide is for females age 65 to 74, while all other independent variables are significantly correlated with suicide for each age-gender group in the expected directions. Also he finds that the divorce rate and cirrhosis of the liver are associated with increased suicide rates (p.44) In conclusion he says that the data on attitudes of the elderly toward political unification of western Europe are significantly associated with suicide (p.45-46) The findings suggest that Durkheims concept of what political integration entails could be expanded, if only in the case of the elderly, to include attitudes toward politics as well as political events themselves (p.46). Steven Stacks (1990) article on the effect of divorce on suicide in Denmark, from 1951 to 1980, looks at the effect of marital dissolution on suicide from a cultural and institutional framework different from previous studies that had focused on America. His article focuses on Denmark, which has a different cultural and institutional context than the United States. He says that a Cochrane-Orcutt iterative regression analysis replicates the American-based pattern for Denmark. The divorce index is more closely associated than the unemployment rate with changes in the suicide rate. He found that a 1% increase in divorce is associated with a .32% increase in suicide. He also found that divorce trends also predict the incidence of youth suicide. The article further confirms that the generalization that links rapid change in kinship structures to suicide in industrial societies (Stack, 1990: 359). Stack devotes a section of his paper to the theoretical perspectives dealing with the subject of marital dissolution and suicide, where he discusses Durkheim. He says that some critics of Durkheims social integration perspective, says that its not testable because he never presented an explicit denotative measure of social integration. But most of the work on divorce and suicide does employ a Durkheimian explanatory scheme, such as the one Stack uses in this present study. Durkheims theory of divorce and suicide is only a part of his larger paradigm. Durkheim constructed a theory of suicide based on the concepts of egoism, which is the lack of integration and anomie, which is the lack of regulation (Stack, 1990: 360). He discusses Durkheims position on gender differences in terms of the divorce-suicide relationship, and says that it is not altogether consistent. First Durkheim says that divorced men and women do kill themselves between three or four times more often than married persons. The data he presents clearly shows that divorce affects both genders about the same as compared to those married. But in another section of his book on Suicide, Durkheim says that women gain little from marriage, as compared to men. I would probably say that this is not a contradiction, because even though women that are single or widowed are more likely to commit suicide as his data showed, women that are married are less integrated into society as their husbands, wh o were permitted to continued social interactions outside the home. In Durkheims day most women did not work, they were isolated or restricted to the home, while the man was fee to interact in the outside world. Women were less socially integrated than men, therefore Durkheim believed that marriage did not benefit women as much as men. Critical Thinking In Decision Making Essay Unlike previous strain theories, GST focuses mainly on negative relationships with others, in that a person is not treated in a way they expect or want to be treated. Agnew argues that people are pressured into deviant or criminal acts by negative affective states, especially anger, which results in negative relationships. And that such negative affects leads to pressure which then leads to illegitimate ways to attain a goal. Other strain theories, like Mertions explain strain in a way that relationships with others prevent one from reaching positively valued goals. Other strain theories, like Merton focus mainly on goal blockage, which is most often experienced by the middle and lower class. Agnews GST is written at a social-psychological level, which is different from the social-structural levels of Durkheim and Mertion. The theory is a social-psychological level approach that lets one focus on a persons immediate social environment. The theory is mainly focused toward explaining adolescent criminality or delinquency, because much of the data available for testing it involves surveys of adolescents. Agnew thinks that GST is capable of overcoming empirical and theoretical criticisms associated with prior versions of strain theory. His theory is capable of incorporating variables from other theories like social control and differential association that have been shown in previous studies to influence deviance. He proposes several factors that determine whether a person will cope with strain in a criminal or conforming manner, including temperament, intelligence, interpersonal skills, self-efficacy, association with criminal peers, and conventional social support. The abo ve factors that are studied in other theories, and he uses them to help improve strain theory. Timothy Brezina (1996) article, Adapting to Strain, shows that strain is positively associated with the experience of several negative emotions, such as anger, resentment, and depression, and that delinquency reduces the impact of strain on those emotions. Brezina shows that delinquency is coping behavior or adaptive behavior to help adolescents to minimize the negative emotional affects of strain. The problem with the study was that the cross-sectional nature of the analyses makes it impossible to confirm the causal order implied by the hypotheses. Therefore, the cross-sectional results that support GST need to be verified with longitudinal data, which the Youth in Transition Study cannot do to test the various hypotheses. Paternoster and Mazerolle (1994) article found partial support for general strain theory. It was consistent with Agnew and Whites (1992) work, finding that negative relationships with adults, dissatisfaction with friends and school, and the experience of stressfu l events, such as family breakup or unemployment were positively related to delinquency. But they found no evidence that a broader exposure to negative stimuli causing strain was not effected by the duration of stressful events, which means that how long stressful events occur had no impact on delinquency as Agnew had argued. Contrary to Agnews expectations they also found no support that impediments to delinquent or non-delinquent strategies interact with strain, meaning that coping strategies had no effect on strain. Paternoster and Mazerolle (1994) says that general strain was positively related to subsequent delinquency regardless of level of delinquent peers, delinquent disposition, moral beliefs, self-efficacy, and conventional social support networks. They admit that other strategies to cope with strain were not discussed, such as school activities, athletics, or escapism through drug use. They was also unable to test Agnews key variable anger. In The conditional effects of stress on delinquency and drug use, Hoffman and Su (1997) found that stressful life events among female and male adolescents are similarly associated with delinquency and drug use, which shows that one key concept of Agnews GST crosses demographic lines defined by gender. They were not able to show that female interpersonal and male individualistic development models differences could predict delinquency drug use. They say that males and females may not experience different levels of strain, but that they may react to stress with different responses, such as anger for males, and depression for females. They do find that similar causal processes by males and females links stress to delinquency and drug use, but the results need to be confirmed with data from a probability sample (Hoffman and Su, 1997). The main problem with General Strain Theory is that no current data sets allow for the full testing of the above hypothesis or of all of the GST as a whole. Researchers need to collect comprehensive data on most of the measures of GST to test the importance of the theory. Future longitudinal studies should explore the causal relationship among strain, social control, differential association, and other theories to see if one or more of the theories affects the others theories. For example associations with delinquent peers (differential association), could cause negative relations and emotions to others (general strain theory), because they are labeled as delinquent (labeling theory), and therefore have limited opportunities and a reduction in positive proactive social bonds with the rest of society (social control), which limits non-delinquent coping strategies and increases the likelihood of deviance. Negative relations have a substantial effect on deviance, even when controlling for social control and differential association measures. In order to determine if strain caused delinquency, one would have to know if such things as association with deviant peers wasnt the real cause of delinquency.If a adolescent was associated with a deviant group or individual (differential association), that negative relationships could teach or promote deviance (learning theory), that could create the stigma of being deviant (labeling theory), or reduce social bonds with positive relationships, such as family, school, and church (social control theory), which leads to an increased likelihood of deviant behavior. This basically means that other theories may be the cause of deviance that leads to strain, or some of them may work together to increase the likelihood of strain when certain conditions are favorable for deviance. It could be said then that negative associations, the things learned from those negative relations, the stigma attached and the limiting of opportunities of those within those negative relations, the weakening of positive social bonds associated with those in negative relations, may all increase the likelihood that strain due to loss of positive attachments, negative relationships with negative affects, such as anger, and frustration could lead to an increased likelihood of deviance. Strain may then be only one of many factors that acts in collaboration with multiple direct variables to increase the likelihood of deviance and crime. Positive social bonds and the positive labeling, and positive relationships that would result from such proactive empathetic bonds, would reduce the likelihood of strain, and even in cases of strain, would provide a strong support network that could provide positive coping strategies that would result in non-deviant responses to stressful life events. Clearly the majority of articles that I have reviewed leads me to conclude that anomie theory, classic strain theory, and general strain theory all find support with some criticism. The main problem is that certain key variables of the theories have not been studied, and the conceptual framework of other studies has misinterpreted the key concepts of the theory. Some say that most of the research on anomie and then on classical strain failed to falsify the theories because they had not really been tested to prove or disprove key concepts. Clearly further research studies are needed that focus on the key concepts of strain, and better methodological data sets need to be developed to test the new theories of strain as well. Also longitudinal studies should be used to avoid the problem of causal order resulting from cross-sectional studies. The theories may need some modifications in terms of the variables that cause crime, but the theory still shows that it has withstood decades of cr iticism and offers important insights to the causes of crime in society. Williams III and McShane (1999) says that policy implications are easy to draw from anomie and strain theories; putting them into practice is another manner entirely (p.103). Since anomie is a macro-level theory, the proper form of policy would be aimed at modifying the social structure, such as to eliminate the class structures, racism, and prejudice, all of which are factors working to limit the opportunities for reaching goals (Williams and McShane, 1999: 103). Other recommended approaches includes programs to provide increased job opportunities, such as the Depression era work programs, and many government programs created in the 1960s aimed at increasing opportunities for meaningful work to help the poor. Also more educational opportunities would be favored under strain theory. From the perspective of Agnews strain theory, finding ways to decrease negative relationships in families, schools, and neighborh oods, would be a reasonable approach to reduce strain. A final policy approach offered by Ruth Kornhauser (1978) as well as Steve Brown, Fin Esbensen, and Gil Geis (1991) have suggested that a policy implication of anomie theory would be to reduce aspirations that cause strain for those unable to achieve them. One could say that the American Dream is over, but no one would accept a loss of aspirations, and crime is not the worst ill in society. Anomie theory accepts that crime is a normal part of society. The Merton-Durkheim theory of anomie, and related theories of strain and control, continue, to provide important orienting perspectives within criminology, deviance, and the sociology of law (Abrahamson, 1996: 249). REFERENCESAbrahamson, Mark. 1996. Criminology, deviance, law The Legacy of Anomie Theory edited by Freda Adler and William S. Laufer. CONTEMPORARY SOCIOLOGY, Vol.25, No.2, pp.249-250. Agnew, Robert. 1992. Foundations For A General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency, CRIMINOLOGY, Vol. 30, pp.47-87. Agnew, Robert; Cullen, Francis T.; Burton Jr., Velmer S.; Evans, T. David; and Dunaway, R. Gregory. 1996. A New Test Of Classical Strain Theory, JUSTICE QUARTERLY, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp.681-701. Agnew, Robert, and White, Helen. 1992. An Empirical Test of General Strain Theory, CRIMINOLOGY, Vol. 30, pp.475-499. Breault, K.D. and Barkey, Karen. 1982. A Comparative Analysis of Durkheims Theory Of Egoisitic Suicide, THE SOCIOLOGICAL QUARTERLY, Vol. 23, pp.321-331. _______, 1983. Durkheim Scholarship and Suicidology: Different Ways of Doing Research in History of Social Thought and Different Interpretations of Durkheims Suicide, THE SOCIOLOGICAL QUARTERLY, Vol.24, pp.629-632. Brezina, Timothy. 1996. Adapting To Strain: An Examination Of Delinquent Coping Responses, CRIMINOLOGY, Vol.34, No.1, pp.39-59. Camp, Sarah. Robert K. Mertons Anomie Theory, http://www.criminology.fsu.edu/faculty/greek/courses/merton.htmClinard, M.B. 1968. ANOMIE AND DEVIANT BEHAVIOR. 4th Ed. The Free Press. Durkheim, Emile. 1893. The Division of Labor in Society. New York: The Free Press. ________, 1951. SUICIDE, The Free Press. Farnworth, Margaret and Leiber, Michael J. 1989. Strain Theory Revisted: Economic Goals, Educational Means, and Delinquency, AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW, Vol. 54, pp.263-274Fernquist, Robert M. 1995-96. Elderly Suicide in Western Europe 1975-1989: A Different Approach to Durkheims Theory of Political Integration, OMEGA, Vol.32, No.1, pp.39-48. Hoffman, John P. and Su, Susan S. 1997. The Conditional Effects of Stress on Delinquency and Drug Use: A Strain Theory Assessment of Sex Differences, JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CRIME AND DELINQUENCY. Vol. 34, pp.46-78. Menard, Scott. 1995. A Developmental Test of Mertonian Anomie Theory, JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CRIME AND DELINQUENCY, Vol.32, pp.136-174. Morrison, Ken 1995. MARX, DURKHEIM, WEBER: Formations of Modern Social Social Thought. Sage Publications. Paternoster, Raymond and Mazerolle, Paul. 1994. General Strain Theory And Delinquency: A Replication and Extension, JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN CRIME AND DELINQUENCY, Vol. 31, pp. 235-263. Pescosolido, Bernice A. 1990. The Social Context Of Religious Integration and Suicide: Pursuing the Network Explanation. THE SOCIOLOGICAL QUARTERLY, Vol.31, No. 3, pp. 337-357. Pope, Whitney and Danigelis, Nick. 1981. Sociologys One Law, SOCIAL FORCES Vol. 60, No. 2, pp. 495-516. Reid, S.T. 1979. CRIME AND CRIMINOLOGY. Prentice-Hall. Stack, Steven. 1983. A Comparative Analysis of Durkheims Theory of Egoistic Suicide: A Comment, THE SOCIOLOGICAL QUARTERLY, Vol. 24, pp.625-628. _________, 1990. The Effect Of Divorce On Suicide In Denmark, 1951-1980. THE SOCIOLOGICAL QUARTERLY, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 359-370. Travis, Robert. 1990. Halbwachs and Durkheim: A Test Of Two Theories of Suicide, BRITISH JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY (BJS), Vol. 41, No. 2Van Poppel, Frans, and Day, Lincoln H. 1996. A Test of Durkheims Theory of Suicide Without Committing the Ecological Fallacy, AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL REVIEW, Vol. 61, No. 3, pp. 500-507. Williams III, Frank P. and McShane, Marilyn D. 1999. CRIMINOLOGY THEORY. 3rd Ed. Prentice Hall. See Chapter 6 on Anomie Theory. (Note: Research Paper Written Dec. 10, 1998 for Graduate Credit at Morehead State Universtiy, by Brent Monroe Pergram, who received a Masters of Arts in General Sociology May 2000)

Land Acquisition and Statutory Valuation

Question: Discuss about the Land Acquisition and Statutory Valuation. Answer: Facts of Infrastructure at Lappington There are number of projects undertaken, in the eastern part of the Leppington and in the northern part of the Leppington. This work will come to the conclusion in the year 2022. They started the building up of infrastructure of waste water. In Austral it will complete by the year 2016, in the eastern part of Leppington, it will complete by the year 2015, at the northern part of the Leppington, the trunk infrastructure will get complete at the end of 2018. The Stages of development depends upon the infrastructure of waste water. There is availability of sufficient water in the precincts and the infrastructure is having enough capacity for the development. The timing to develop the land depends upon the owner of the land to sell. There is more demand with the availability of sewer, electricity as well as the supply of land. Sydney water and endeavour energy is providing the infrastructure for the purpose of urban development. With the increase in the demand for the new residence, more provision shall be made for the infrastructure. For dwelling on the land, development application for the council may be considered. The minimum density standard shall be applicable. At Leppington, the land is used for the infrastructure at water sewerage and can be used for the development of the land. It helps in building the suitable infrastructure that will help in the development of the country. Thus, it is one of the important factor that need to be considered. Explanations Development application is considered depending upon the development of land. It will depend upon the control of new planning. For submitting the development application, the following points need to be considered- The sub division that shows the manner in which land is required to be developed. There need to be sufficient space for the disposal of sewerage for the provision of sewer infrastructure at the Sydney water. All the planning requirements are met Type of development Charging schedule Residential $75 per square metre Retail $75 per square metre Commercial and non residential Nil There are 17350 homes detached the homes and the residence in the rural areas. There are 54000 of residents in the centre of the town of Leppington. For the confirmation of zoning, certificate under section 149 is important. The information relating to the zoning of the property is provided under section 149 (2) of the certificate. Section 149 (5) provides all the information and advice from the authorities. (South West Rail Link, 2005) In a Lappington, the levy is charged based on the net gain of the floor space expressed in terms of the dollar in per square metre. Such levy is collected within 60 days from the date of the commencement. (Stuff, 2015) Chargeable amount scale Payment time For less than $25000 Amount to be paid in full at the time of commencement Between $25000 to 100000 Amount to be paid in one third at the time of commencement one third after the completion of 9 months from the date of commencement. At first occupation, one third is paid For first occupation full amount is paid Amount more than $100000 At the time of commencement, one third is paid one third after the completion of 12 months from the date of commencement. At first occupation, one third is paid For first occupation full amount is paid According to Regulation 123, the projects and the infrastructure types that the CIL income will fund will be included in it. The infrastructure project at Lappington are not funded from the CIL income and are funded through section 106. It is clearly set out in the Regulation 123 as to which all infrastructures shall be funded through CIL income and the infrastructures that will be excluded from the CIL income. (Committee meeting of Joint Legislative Committee on Economic Recovery, 1994) At Lappington, It is necessary to collect the Strategic access management and maintenance element with the help of section 106. If the necessary amount is not provided, it shall be considered as the refusal of the application for planning. If the development is of 10 dwelling, it shall be liable for the contribution of housing under section 106. Before the grant of the permission for planning, the council needs to comply with the requirement of the agreement under section 106. (Hecht,2006) Railway is the very important infrastructure of Lappington. Business and jobs in Lappington is miserably suffers if the services of railway are inefficient. Linking of railways with the port and airport helps to create business opportunity. Use of more railway in Lappington helps to bring reduction in the carbon. The Transport and Work Act 1992 consist of the power to construct as well as operate the railway. Government decision with regards to the contribution towards the infrastructure of the Lappington will depend upon the evaluation, appraisal as well as the modeling. (Ranade, 2009) For proper planning of infrastructure in Lappington, mathematical tools are used to analyse the transport system. Guidance is improved by the government with the help of research. (Ofori,2011) The government of Lappington can help in funding the infrastructure through its treasury. Rail in Lappington will be the most important alternative to reach to business hub. The development of residential areas 60 kms away from the business hub will help to attract more number of passengers towards the railway. Government decided to fund the CRL. Construction of rail in Lappington will be the long term plan as it will exceed three years based on the premises where the construction will take place.(Hassell, 2003) For the construction of the infrastructure at Lappington, there is a need for two criteria- one is the patronage towards the railway and the another one is the development of the employment opportunities. It is necessary to get the approval of finance minister, prime minister and the transport minister for the construction of infrastructure in the Lappington. (Yasui, 2002) It is necessary to announce sprawl subsidies to provide additional fund for the motorway. Dynamic centre of urban area and the development of infrastructure area are likely to create more demand for the infrastructure in the Lappington. A city rail link of 3.4 km will be constructed. Installation of a storm water pipe need to be done. CRL will take more than three years to build. A deal is made with the private company to build tunnel underneath. The cross rail accommodate 5000 homes and around 22000 jobs. If there is failure to generate the land, it will directly have its impact on the vision for the areas. The cost for the relocation of the rail will be borne by the value of the land. At the rail depot, a cost of $300 will be assumed and at the IEP depot, a cost of $150 will be assumed. It will be the alternative for the relocation of both the depots of the holding up of the public sector land. Growth of population at Lappington shows the dealing with the new town. Increase in homes increases the need for social infrastructure. Such social infrastructures are the schools, play space, etc. With the increase in the population of residents, there is increase in the demand for the utilities infrastructure. It includes the cost on the combination of heat and the powerful network. Utilities company will charge from the customers for the use of heat and power but the developer need to pay for their share. Infrastructure at Lappington is funded based on the housing policy. The single funding stream is the community infrastructure levy. Receipt of CIL is balanced with that of the requirements for affordable housing. We can set the infrastructure cost based on the funding available from the affordable housing. It is estimated that up to year 2020 there will be more demand for the bridge as well as the road investment. For the purpose of CIL evidence and to deliver the local infrastructure requirement, more focus need to be given on the growth of jobs and homes. There has been utilities of $ 251416 and transport of $ 831500 Possible receipt can be calculated with the help of delivery of infrastructure by direct developer through sec 106, section 278, CIL and the planning process. After the policy cost and the development cost is paid, it is necessary to understand the receipt of developers at Lappington. Process of master planning helps to gain significant infrastructure delivery amount. Developers are contributing towards the infrastructure with the help of S106 forms which plays an important role in infrastructure funding. CIL funding depends upon the affordable houses. Pool of developer contributions are funding the affordable houses, CIL and S106. This pool is normally finite. If there is more demand for the affordable housing, there will be less CIL that will be afforded. Here in this case, the cost that is known is set with the cost that is funded that will help in making the funding gap apparent and the CIL can be levied accordingly. (Housing And Urban Development Department, 2015) The funding gap can be closed in the following manner Setting up of over ground station with the TfL and DfT. The requirement for affordable housing at Lappington can be reduced in order to increase the intermediate. It is possible to take loans from the government of Lappington. Tax increment financing is possible where, raising up of fund is done against the CIL income stream and the business rate. It is necessary to deal with the issues relating to planning, decision making with the implications that are reaching far away. This is going to be the challenging situation. It is necessary to bring the expert help in such a process. Large areas of land are coming under the public sector. If handled properly, they are going to bring more economic return to the tax payer of Lappington. Thus, encourages the economic development of the Lappington. Income can be gained from the utilities supply. Community development is possible with the help of income from utilities and the ground rent. It is necessary to narrow down the gap between the funding and the cash flow. Investment in transport helps to bring economic benefits. It is a part of TIF application and also create funding for the government of Lappington. It is necessary to make proper placement of CIL and S106. It is necessary to have the knowledge what the developer are exactly paying on the contribution towards the infrastructure at Lappington. Policy relating to the CIL and S106 should be communication clearly. It is necessary to keep the strategy and the policy of planning flexible. (Housing And Urban Development Department, 2015) Delivery of a project need to be properly planned. Identifying the critical path, resolving the issues, roles and the responsibilities need to be clarified. Time sequence issues which will help to focus on the short term and medium term issues. This will help in clarifying the decision to be taken. Transport infrastructure is the costliest infrastructure. It is necessary to develop detailed idea about the same. Construction of a rail is having its impact on the transport of Lappington. This influence the phasing. 25000 homes, 56000 jobs will be delivered by 2050 with an average delivery of resident of 700 per year- There has been rise in the housing output of Lappington. The cost of rail infrastructure at Lappington and the car park will be around $ 75m. Building Information Modelling is used to enhance the efficiency in the delivery of the infrastructure at Lappington. This provides the benefits of controlling the cost, investment in cash flow ,sequencing for the intelligent site, and the delivery coordination. Smart city technique can be used that will benefit the residents as well as the business. Infrastructural cost support the development of the homes as well as the jobs. Infrastructure cost of Lappington includes tailored cost and the cost of maintenance, etc. (Housing And Urban Development Department, 2015) The cost that is assumed for the acquisition of the site $2m / acre + 30% or the land and building with value of +30% whichever is highest. Land at Lappington can be obtained for the new depot from the Network Rail Estate. After the identification of the final cost that is $ 300m, it is then factored into the cost of development of the land. $ 300 m is the figure of high level. It is changed when the work is feasible and the relocation of the depot is done. Before the public examination is done, CIL is set. In order to understand the CIL, it is necessary to understand the delivery and which piece will be delivered by whom. 20% of the affordable housing will be provided. With the improvement in the PTAL, the sales value increases, which increases the CIL charges. The connection through rail will alter the geographical area. (Housing And Urban Development Department, 2015) Development Infrastructure funding studies of Lappington helps to spread the information, the planning process that is complex by nature is coordinated, proper guidance to the place of market and the social benefits are clarified with the help of proper investment. It is necessary to focus on the following factors Growth of the requirement for infrastructure at Lappington. The time when there will be a rise in the demand for the infrastructure at Lappington. The cost of the infrastructure requirements of Lappington. The payment of the Lappington infrastructure so required. National Plan Policy Framework is undertaken which focuses on the various points NPPF focuses on the quality as well as the capacity of the infrastructure of Lappington. The infrastructure of Lappington should meet the forecasted demand. Local Planning Authorities should understand the importance of development cost according to the NPPF. The infrastructure should deliver in the fashioned time. It is necessary to find out the time of the cost incurred and whether the funding is available when the actual cost is incurred. The amount of infrastructure of the Lappington should be affordable in order to support the plan. (Yasui, 2002) Rates are built based on the traditional housing products absorption. Annual output of around 700 homes are averaged. This number can be made known with the help of discussion with the developer. Housing output accelerate per annum. Different market segments can be used to reach the products to the consumers. Infrastructure at Lappington is needed for the purpose of development. Infrastructure creates serviced and accessible sites. It includes internal access such as rail to the sites, sewage, telecoms and gas, etc. 1. Developers at Lappington are required to pay levy towards the land as well as construction. This will directly have its impact on the rate. As, the developer will add the cost that he has incurred in the total cost of housing that increases the overall cost. The cost for infrastructure at Lappington is incurred by the state and local government. It is financed by the government of Lappington as per S106 form, S 123 and CIL. The procedure is discussed above. Development of the sites can be done by the developer with the help of the financial models. Assessment of the infrastructure can be done based on the assessment of the external costs which will be at the rate of development by per square foot. If the infrastructure cost exceed a particular level, it can be considered normal. Thus, infrastructure plays a vital role in the development of housing and the development of the country. It links the various parts of the country. (Yasui, 2002) 2. Section 50 of the constitution of Australia deals with the law of the acquisition of the land. These laws are made by the Parliament. It is both the power as well as the guarantee from the constitution. All the powers of making the law and order are given to the parliament with respect to the acquisition of land. Law relating to the acquisition of land is the guarantee of contingency rather than that of the acquisition of land. Land Acquisition Act 1969, is enforceable. `Pre acquisition declaration is lodged containing the details with regards to the acquisition of the land with the Registrar of titles. Common wealth intention is required to be informed to the buyers of Lappington. The Registrar of titles deals with the declaration of acquisition. Compensation is paid for the pre acquisition of land and proper approval need to be obtained from the common wealth. Interest on the amount of compensation is calculated. There is need to follow suitable step on the calculation of intere st. Interest on land is acquired by the common wealth government under the land acquisition act, 1989. It is necessary to protect the interest of the common wealth. Common wealth decision is made with respect to the acquisition of land at Lappington. Common wealth decision is passed with respect to the acquisition of the interest in the land. Professional advice is given to the government of Lappington. Compensation for the acquisition and the interest in land of Lappington is made to the commonwealth. The act is administered by the minister of finance and the deregulation. The day to day administration is carried out by them. The act is based on acquisition of interest in land at Lappington. It includes the owning up of land, land on mortgage, lessee and licensing and the title interest, etc. The acquisition of land is made through acquisition that is compulsory, negotiable agreement and the acquisition on an urgent basis. Deduction $75m (Rail project cost) / 3000 new lots = $25,000 levy per lot The cost that is assumed for the acquisition of the site $2m / acre + 30% or the land and building with value of +30% whichever is highest. Cost Rail Project and Car Park 75 Value of land For 750m2 $275,000 For 75m it will be 27500 Value of business for 200 m2 $250,000 for 75m it will be 9375 The rubbish waste and the local water supply $580 The average rate of business property excluding the above $1,250 Farm Rate $700 There will be total expenditure of 302530 References Jain, A. (n.d.). Revisiting land acquisition and urban process. Chapin, T. and Coutts, C. (2011). Growth management and public land acquisition. Burlington, vt.: Ashgate. Ramachandran, V. (1969). The law of land acquisition and compensation, lucknow: Eastern Book Co. South West Rail Link. (2005). Sydney, NSW: Dept. of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources. Picot, A. (n.d.). The economies of infrastructure provisioninig. Grimsey, D. and Lewis, M. (2004). Public Private Partnership. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. Spiegelglas, S. and Welsh, C. (1970). Economic development. Englewood cliffs, N. J. Prentice- Hall. Committee meeting of Joint Legislative Committee on Economic Recovery: (1994). Trenton, N.J.: The Committee. Ranade, P. (2009). Infrastructure development and its environmental impact.New Delhi: Concept Pub.Co. Hecht, B. (2006). Developing affordable housing. Hoboken N.J. John Wiley Sons. Ofori, G. (2011). Contemporary Issues in Construction in Developing Countries. Hoboken: Taylor Francis. Hassell, S. (2003). Building better homes. Santa Monica, CA: RAND. Yasui, T. (2002). Housing finance in transition economies, Paris: OECD. Housing And Urban Development Department , (2015). Code of federal regulations, title 24- parts 200-499, housing urban development hud. [Place of publication not identified]: Housing Urban development.

Vietnam How Australia Got Involved Essays - Vietnam War

Vietnam ? How Australia Got Involved 1. In what way was Australia involved in Vietnam in 1965 ? In 1962 the Government of Australia decided in, response to a request from the South Vietnamese Government, to supply them with military aid. At that time, 30 instructors were sent to assist in the training of the South Vietnamese defense forces. Unofficially, in 1962, troops were sent in to train the South Vietnamese and act as a militia. The Australian public was not made aware of this until many years later after the conclusion of the war in 1972. In 1965, the war was officially declared and the public was made aware of this through the media. During this time (1965 to 1972) Australia supported the US and South Vietnam. However, Australia and the US were more concerned about the threat of a possible spread of communism rather than the well being of the South Vietnamese. In 1965, conscription was introduced to the Australian public in order to provide further assistance to the South Vietnamese. This was not widely supported by the public with many people refusing to attend the war and being putt in jail for a minimum of two years. 2. What were the reasons that Prime Minister Menzies gave that we should be fighting in Vietnam ? Both Robert Menzies and Lyndon Johnson were willing to send in troops for one main reason. Both Menzies and Johnson feared or were concerned about a possible spread of communism within South-East Asia and even as far south as Australia. They were not too particularly concerned about the well being of the Southern Vietnamese. This is portrayed further in ?For Australia's Sake' as a drawing of a communist man fighting in Vietnam with his shadow stretching down almost to northern Australia. Standing on the mainland of Australia is Menzies pointing at the threat. On top of this there is a comment in the drawing, ? A murky shadow has fallen over this part of the world, reaching to our very shores ?

Earning Loyalty and Trust

Earning Loyalty and Trust Introduction Healthcare leadership, like any other leadership, is mandated to ensure that employees remain loyal to the organization they (employees) are working for. Loyalty of employees benefits an organization and helps to avoid unnecessary expenses such as training new employees by reducing the turnover rate. Leadership earns the loyalty of employees by first earning their trust.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Earning Loyalty and Trust specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The purpose of this research paper is to show how leadership in the healthcare sector can earn trust and loyalty from the employees. It will be emphasized that these two virtues can only be earned and not demanded. Earning trust and finally loyalty are depicted as processes which the leaders have to be committed to persistently. In order to achieve the purpose of this research, secondary sources of information are utilized. Books and inter net resources are used. Only those materials which focus on healthcare leadership are used. Personal insights are also added, especially in the discussion section. The order of this research starts with an abstract, findings section, discussion, and a conclusion. There is also a list of the references used in the research paper. Findings Section Loyalty Leadership in healthcare institutions presents various challenges. It has been noted that loyalties in these institutions are divided (Umiker, 2005). More often than not, workers are more loyal to workmates or unions than to their leaders. Specifically, it has been found that scientifically trained employees display more fidelity to their technical societies than to their leaders. Middle level leadership has been said to be dilemmatic because of the split loyalty they need to show to their subordinates as well as to their superiors. Leaning too far to one side leads to airing of grievances and accusation of disloyalty by the other si de (Umiker, 2005). Loyalty is of great significance in the healthcare sector. Umiker (2005) argues that productivity is a primary casualty of absence of corporate loyalty which is then followed by â€Å"sloppy workmanship, apathetic employees, mediocre quality, and poor service† (p. 235). Umiker (2005) further notes that loyalty is lost when the morale of employees is destroyed and goes further to list the factors that destroy morale: â€Å"poor working conditions, poor compensation, and poor leadership skills† (Umiker, 2005, p. 235).Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Therefore, loyalty is of great significance, but then how can it be fostered? Some of the actions that foster loyalty are as follows – â€Å"providing a safe work environment and reasonable opportunities for advancement, offering first-class benefits, rewards for high perf ormance, and demonstrated respect for ability† (McConnell, 2010, p. 345). Strengthening Loyalty There are various measures that can be taken to strengthen loyalty. These measures also increase the level of trust between the leadership and the employees. One of them is honesty. Leaders are advised to be honest with their employees (McConnell, 2010). Honest in this respect entails informing the employees about policies and plans that will and/or may affect them directly and/or indirectly. In this manner, trust is built between the leadership and employees and suspicion of ill motives by the employees on the leadership have no chance of developing. Leadership should also ensure that what it expects the employees to accomplish is made clear to the employees and that they (employees) are empowered to do that. Leadership can do this by thoroughly carrying out â€Å"position descriptions, performance standards, orientation, and training† (McConnell, 2010, p. 345). Other measur es to building loyalty include consistency, fairness, impartiality, and trustworthiness. Leadership should significantly play a supportive role more than a judicial role. It should also be ensured that leadership values all the employees (McConnell, 2010). Gunderman (2009) airs similar sentiments concerning building loyalty. He argues that physicians are not so much interested in giving their services to the highest bidders but rather are interested in working in organizations that â€Å"cultivate trust, foster pride in work, and encourage physicians to enjoy what they do† (Gunderman, 2009, p. 17). Trust According to McConnell (2010), loyalty and trust are inherently connected. Loyalty is a function of trust and trust must be earned. All the efforts that lead to earning of trust eventually have a final result of building loyalty. Trust has been singled out has being very beneficial to healthcare organizations.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Earning Loyalty and Trust specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Gunderman (2009), trust fosters high levels of collaboration. Lack of trust among employees lead to lowering of cooperation and raises the level of suspicion that employees have on each other and on the leadership. If the leadership cannot be trusted by the employees, the impression created in the minds of the employees is that they (employees) are not valued and are being treated as interchangeable parts in a machine. This attitude is likely to fiercely eat into the commitment of such employees (Gunderman, 2009). Trust has also been deeply associated with improving customer support in the healthcare sector. Gunderman (2009) argues that if physicians feel trusted, they are more likely to reciprocate by giving good service to the patients without any fears. He notes that â€Å"In a (trust-based) healthcare organization, fear that mistakes will be detected and punished i s a less powerful motivator than a genuine commitment to provide the best care† (Gunderman, 2009, p. 15). Studies on creating trust-based organizational climate have shown that healthy relationships play a significant role in fostering trust in organizations. Manion (2005) outlines several advantages of a trust-based organization: â€Å"it commands trust from the public, has a competitive advantage, can draw the best people, inspire customer loyalty, reach out successfully to new markets, and provide more innovative products and services† (p. 50). Earning Trust The significance of trust in an organization has pushed scholars to propose ways which can be used by leadership to develop trust-based organizations. Communication: This implies that all communication should always be clear and straightforward. There should not be any form of ambiguity that may breed confusion. Duties should be assigned to specific people and it should be made clear what details and specificatio n are to be accomplished. Commitment: It is very important that the leadership show commitment to agreements made with the employees. If for some reasons this is not possible, then there is a need for immediate disclosure. Transparency: This is very important. There should be complete transparency of the way an organization is run. Rumors should not be allowed among the employees and information should not be withheld unnecessarily from the employees.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Speedy resolution: Trust is earned when conflicts are solved as soon as they are noted. Refusing to acknowledge the presence of conflicts will erode any trust that employees have in the leadership and this will actually make it harder for the leadership to solve the problem when the situation gets out of hand. Respect: The leadership needs to show respect to the employees in order to earn trust from them. According to World Congress (2012), fostering trust in healthcare settings leads to great financial benefits. It has been shown that customers who trust their healthcare insurers associate them with the following qualities â€Å"clarity, understanding, caring, generosity, fairness, compassion, flexibility, helpful, believable, effectiveness, warm-hearted, cooperative, friendly, informative, reliability, kindness, up-to-date, accessibility, organization and transparency† (World Congress, 2012, p. 4). Four steps have been suggested for leadership in healthcare insurance to fol low in order to earn the trust of their customers. Step One: The leaderships should have a thorough knowledge of their customers. They should study the behavior and what the customers value most. Step Two: The knowledge collected about consumers should be used to develop packages that are convenient to the consumers. This will show the consumers that they are understood and that their needs are taken care of. Step Three: Leadership should engage the consumers in programs that empower them. Programs on wellness behaviors stand to benefit the consumers and in turn the consumers are likely to trust the providers. Step Four: Transparency is highly appreciated and valued by consumers. This is especially when there is a mistake committed – coming out clearly and explaining the situation including how such a mistake will be effectively taken care of will stir the consumers to have trust in a leadership. Discussion The literature review section has shown that loyalty and trust are in deed inherently connected. It is clear that loyalty cannot be earned before earning trust. For employees to be loyal to a leadership or to an organization, they first have to find some form of trust in the leadership or the organization. Leadership in healthcare organization must be aware of this fact. I believe the following model will work well for healthcare leadership. A model showing how loyalty and trust are dependent on each other Employees/customers who trust a leadership/company will intuitively develop loyalty Basically, the studies reviewed above have shown that building a healthy relationship is a way to ensuring that trust is earned. Leadership is tasked to ensure that it has fostered a good relationship with the employees and also that the employees relate well. It is amazing that huge compensations are not viewed as a means the healthcare leadership can use to earn employee trust. Specifically, Gunderman (2009) notes that physicians are not really interested in offeri ng services to the highest bidders but rather in working in areas where they can enjoy their work. There are many values highlighted in the literature section which healthcare leadership needs to embrace in order to earn trust. I am of the opinion that for leadership to earn trust from the employees, it has to engage in a genuine quest for justice and ensure that they are in good friendship terms with the employees. In the table below, I have divided the values highlighted in the findings section into two – those that will result due to the quest for justice and the others that will be products of genuine friendship. Justice related values Friendship related values Speedy resolution, clarity, fairness, effective , informative, cooperative, believable, fast, reliable, up-to-date, transparent, communication, and respect Friendly, helpful, flexible, compassion, understanding, caring, generosity, warm-hearted, kind, superior, accessible, organized, and commitment Table 1 (Showing how the need for commitment of leaders to justice and healthy relationships with employees) It might be argued that some of the values in one column might be switched to the other column depending on the situation at hand. It is still amazing to note that the values in the table above do not really require a lot of resources to implement. All that the leadership requires to do is being dedicated to carry out their roles in a just way. Since earning trust seems to be so easy to undertake, a question arises – why is it that it is not a popular practice among leadership? Trust is earned. It cannot be demanded from customers or employees. Healthcare leadership needs to be aware of this fact. According to Hassan (n.d), trust must be earned every day. Earning the trust of employees is a process which requires time hence the need to continually earn it every day. Due to the difficulty in defining trust, Romano (2003) uses its defining characteristics to define it. The de fining Characteristics of Trust Referents of Trust Attitudinal Social Versatile Functional Defines the phenomena to which ‘trust’ refers. Components of Trust Hypothetical Consequential Motivational Defines the sentiments that ‘trust’ contains Dimensions of Trust Symmetrical Incremental Conditional Defines the judgments that levels of ‘trust’ infer Table 2 (Romano, 2003) This table makes it clear why it is not possible to demand trust. The defining characteristics of trust are quite abstract and they can only earned. For instance, trust is viewed as an attitude (Romano, 2003) and we know that an attitude displayed is dependent on the relationship that exists. It should also be noted that trust can only come into play in a social context. Trust therefore is a process that requires nurturing to grow. It takes time and requires commitment – it is conditional. It is after a leadership has earned trust from the employees that the empl oyees in turn become loyal to the leadership and the organization in question in general. Therefore, employees cannot be loyal without first trusting whoever they are being loyal to. Conclusion This research paper has dominantly researched on how leadership can earn trust and loyalty from employees. It has focused on what leaders can do right to ensure that employees are and/or remain loyal to the leadership/organization. It has been noted that trust should be earned first and loyalty will then come in naturally. It has also been noted that earning trust from employees is a process which should be carried out persistently. This process is hinged on good relationship between the leadership and employees. This research paper has great implications which should be noted by leaders in the healthcare sector and generally by all leaders. To start with, leadership should note that loyalty is a virtue that is intentionally cultivated in employees by the leaders. For employees to be loyal, t hey first have to trust the leadership, and thus for the employees to be loyal or disloyal is all dependent on the leadership. Leadership should also note that cultivation of loyalty is a process not a one-time action. For leadership to earn trust, and consequently loyalty, it has to continuously foster a good relationship with the employees and ensure that justice, honesty and transparency prevail. The healthcare field is a participative field and exchange of ideas and information is highly encouraged to ensure best evidence based practices prevail. For this to happen, cooperation among employees in the healthcare sector should be encouraged. However, for these employees to freely share information on their various researches, they will need to build trust in each other. I therefore recommend that studies should be carried out on how employees in the healthcare sector can earn trust from each other. References Gunderman, R. G. (2009). Leadership in Healthcare. New York, NY: Springe r. Hassan, F. (n.d). We can’t just demand trust – first we have to earn it. Leadership. Web. Manion, J. (2005). From Management to Leadership: Practical Strategies for Health Care Leaders. New York, NY: John Willy Sons. McConnell, C. R. (2010). Umikers Management Skills For The New Health Care Supervisor. New York, NY: Jones Barlett Learning. Romano, D. M. (2003). The Nature of Trust: Conceptual and Operational Clarification. Louisiana State University. Web. Umiker, A. (2005). Management Skills for New Health Care Supervisors. New York, NY: Jones Barlett Learning. World Congress. (2012). Measuring the Value of Trust in Healthcare. World Congress. Web.

Sales Management Practices at Shield Financial Assignment

Sales Management Practices at Shield Financial - Assignment Example In any service or industrial sector, no company can enjoy monopoly; competition always exists. Shield Financial has a major competitor named All-Safe which follows fairly good practices, and Shield Financial also designs and re-designs its products and sales practices in order to compete in a healthy manner. From the case, we have seen that Shield Financial has changed its direction a little in order to stay updated in the competition. Previously, it has always focused on small to medium accounts for generating income, but this time the goal is to target bigger accounts. Focusing on bigger accounts is a challenging task because the sales representatives and managers are quite used to dealing with the small and medium account holders. Shield Financial has named this new approach as the First Plus program. The management practices at Shield Financial are strictly resulted oriented. The senior managers want to achieve the outcomes of the goals they plan out for the company. In the resul t oriented approach, the management determines priorities and ensures that the employees have adequate resources available such as workforce, capacity, and infrastructure. The employees, on the other hand, are given the authority to take personal responsibility for achieving the goals laid down by the senior management. They have to plan out their time, talent and knowledge so that they can deliver results as per the expectations of the management. In our given case, the CEO holds the philosophy that if the employees keep on adding numbers, everything else will take care of itself, meaning if the sales in figures keep coming in, everything will run smoothly. By following the result oriented approach, the management set out the goals for the sales managers to promote the First Plus program as a means to earn revenue. Managers including Doug Bloom find the task challenging because it is difficult to redirect the efforts of the sales staff to just one initiative when they are already w orking hard on their previously set targets. Serving as a sales representative for over four years, Doug Bloom understands that the sales staff will not be happy with the job of taking hold of larger accounts because small accounts are easy to handle and have commission tied up with them too. Furthermore, sales representatives will show clear resentment when the new goal from the corporate would be presented to them. Some might even fail to adopt and resign, so Doug will have to use management skills (such as motivation, encouragement, or non-monetary rewards) to achieve consent and results from his team. This might be a great problem for Doug who is new at the management position.  Ã‚  

Marketing Research and Segmentation Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Marketing and Segmentation - Research Paper Example The author of this research essay "Marketing Research and Segmentation" considers that marketing can help a firm to improve its image in the market and expand its customer base. He analyses the real existing example - Macquarie University Hospital. He makes a brief description of the hospital and makes a market research – psychographic & lifestyle analysis. An appropriately customized lifestyle analysis has been used for helping the organization to proceed to market segmentation. In this way, the relationship between the organization and its customers would be improved leading the organization to a long – term growth. In conclusion the author sums up that the lifestyle analysis of people in NSW can help marketers in Macquarie University Hospital to develop an effective marketing plan based on market segmentation, in terms of income and gender. However, the potential drawbacks of lifestyle analysis, as analyzed earlier, should not be ignored. Also, marketers in the Macquarie Hospital should take into consideration the fact that in current market conditions, which are highly turbulent, it is difficult for market trends to remain unchanged. By the way, the author is accurate with demographic information: the demographic information used in this paper has been based on reports published by the Australian government and the Australian Bureau of Statistics. From this point of view, the validity and the accuracy of information used in the development of this study could not be doubted.

Will the Z generation be the laziest generation yet because of smart Research Paper

Will the Z generation be the laziest generation yet because of smart technology - Research Paper Example This generation heavily relies on the social media to socialize and communicate to their friends. The generation is believed to have brilliant minds in regard to using the internet in seek solution to various problems affecting their lives. â€Å"Youths have the common need of a future worth living† (Weber and Greenberg 6) For instance, if they have a complication in regard to health, they just go to the internet to find answers (Sladek 18). It has been argued that generation Z has little secret in their lives especially when dealing with social media. They are willing to disclose and discuss any information with friends and strangers in their social media platforms. Hutchby and Moran-Ellis (1) argued that â€Å"the increase interplay between children and technologies poses critical questions for how we can understand the nature of childhood in ate modern society†. For instance, this generation does not care about sharing their private life especially on their intimate life. They like constantly being on mobile phones texting and on social media chatting and updating status (Weber and Greenberg 26). This generation is disadvantaged because they do not concentrate on their class work since most of the time they are online chatting and updating their status. â€Å"Most U.S teenagers participate in online social network sites at the expense of other activities† (Bers 7). With the use technology, the generation does not mostly rely on class work since they can easily get any information they want from the internet. This is what has contributed to the issue of plagiarism. They just copy the work of other people that has been placed on internet and present it as their own. In another dimension, the generation does not want to struggle much researching on what they are given by their teachers. They like concentrating on results they get from the internet (Gudith 110) It has also been found that most of the people in

Examining Media Discourse And The Amounts Of Crime Criminology Essay

Examining Media Discourse And The Amounts Of Crime Criminology Essay Media discourse is sutured with crime. Crime consumes an enormous amount of media space as both entertainment and news. Much of our information about the nature and extend of crime comes to us via the secondary source of media. We should expect then, that as distributors of social knowledge, they play a significant role in our perception and understanding of the boundaries between order and disorder. (Surette, 1998: 11) Because of the importance of media in everyday life, the study of crime and the media becomes a vital concern of sociology and media studies. Since media has the ability to interpret and give meaning to events through dramatization, this places it at the pinnacle of all social institutions in its ability to shape perception and reactions of its readership. It has been criticized over years by enormous sociologist that media is responsible for fomenting moral sensibilities and anxieties about crime and disorder. (Cohen, 1963; Young, 1971; Hall, 1978; Reiner, 1997; Munice:2001) The media manufactured of news (Cohen and Young, 1973/1981), created moral panics (Cohen, 1973) and fear of crime (Gerbner et al: 1980; Carlson: 1985) about folk devils, stigmatized outsiders, and amplified their deviance (Young, 1971) thus legitimating the drift to a law and order society (Hall et al, 1978) and a more authoritarian style of policing the crisis. (ibid.) In this assignment, I will discuss how and why these consequences of representation of crime are develop, and how they will affect the society. Fear of crime: In recent years policy debates have focused increasingly on fear of crime as an issue as serious s crime itself. As Home Office working party noted that fear of crime as an issue of social concern; it has to be taken as seriously as crime prevention and reduction. (Home Office, 1989: ii) When the media representation of crime is compared to real world crime as measured by official crime statistics, it appears that the media images exaggerate the probability of danger. This is said to cultivate a misleading view of the world based on unnecessary anxiety about levels of risk form violent crime. According to the BCS 1983, people are concerned most about those crimes which they are least likely to experience. (Hough and Mayhew 1983:23) The BCS data show a discrepancy between peoples fear of being a victim and their chances of being that victim. (Reiner 1997: 210; Munice, 2001: 59; Hewitt, 1995: 19) This has engendered a debate about why there should be such a disparity between the perception of risk and the actual risk. Most commonly, the media are accused of exaggerating the risk of crime, representing an image of the world which is scary and mean, (Carlson 1985) (Sparks 1992: Chapter 1) which lead to publics fear of crime in an unreasonable fashion. (Reiner 1997: 199) Most analyses of newspaper crime reporting have been concerned with the potentially distorted impression is created by the high proportion of reports of violent crimes. Ditton and Duffy (1983) analyzed the crime content of three Scottish newspapers concludes that the proportion of violent and sexual crimes are far more than those reported in the official statistics. (Ditton and Duffy, 1983) Many British studies also showed the same pattern of over representation of violent and interpersonal crimes. The risks of crime as portrayed by the media are both quantitatively and qualitatively more serious than the official statistically recorded picture.  [1]   Although media representation of crime is biased and they present crime in an exaggerated way, we cannot simply conclude that fear of crime is associated with media presentation of crime. The reason why people can be easily influenced by media is because they are lack of knowledge about crime. It is rare for people to experience or witness crime. Therefore, they need to rely on media as source of information to understand crime and use it as a guideline in assessing probability of being a victim. Furthermore, people are tended to use a simplistic way and the most available information to make assessment without reviewing other alternative source before they make judgment, this can lead to people use newspaper and television as source of information to understand crime and construct perceptions of crime. (Williams and Dickinson, 1993: 36) Base on these assumptions, it is sensible to say that medias representation of crime do have influence peoples perception about crime. The media biases associated with public misperceptions argument is confirmed by the study of relationship between newspaper crime reporting and fear of crime by Williams and Dickinson and 1996 BCS. According to Williams and Dickinson, there was a significant relationship between reading newspapers with more emphasis on violence crime and measure of fearfulness expressed in a survey. This association survived control by a number of demographical variables. (William and Dickinson, 1993) Thus, the research concludes that readers of those newspapers that report crime in the most dramatic and salient fashion have the highest levels of fear of crime. (William and Dickinson, 1993) Moreover, in the 1996 British Crime Survey, Hough and Roberts also concluded that there are some strong associations have been found between media biases representation and public misperceptions. (Hough and Roberts, 1996) These study both evident the media have direct influence on constructing fear of crime. The news media may constitute biased perception of crime, however, some scholars have a controversial view on the association between media representations and its effects. Increasingly, it is acknowledged that media representations are unlikely to be received passively, but rather interpreted by an active audiences but as one element in their lived experience. (Ericson, 1991; Livingstone, 1996, Reiner, 1997) Many studies show that the media is not the crucial agent in accounting for fear of crime, increasingly, it is more widely accepted that demographic factors such as age, sex, class, background, level of education, area of residence are significant determinants of anxiety about crime and violence. (Gunter, 1987; Sparks, 1992; Ericson, 1991: 287; Schlesinger and Tumber, 1994: 188) Crawford and his fellows (1990) also support such argument that fear does indeed accord to peoples real life circumstances. It may be generated by any number of personal, cultural or environmental factor s. Box et al also concur with Crawfords opinion, he further suggested that fear of crime depends on an interactive complex of vulnerability, environmental conditions, personal knowledge of crime, confidence (or lack of ) confidence in the police. (Munice, 2001: 59) Since there are many factors can affect the perception of crime, we should bear in mind that fear of crime is extraneous, generated by social and personal factors other than risk of crime per se. Moreover, we should remain alive to ability of the public to differentiate and interpret the information they receive. Though there is evidence concerning media partiality and distortion, it cannot by any mean be assumed that media representation are always received uncritically. (Munice, 2001: 62) The issue of media effect on perceptions of crime remains controversial. It is because of the difficulties in rigorously establishing straightforward casual relationships between images and effects. (Reiner, 1997: 191) Since the association between tow factors are remain unknown, it is plausible to conclude that media may have influence on perception of crime. What is more important about the issue of fear of crime is not whether it has any rational basis or it is solely cultivated by media, but rather how far its emotiveness as a topic can be used for ulterior and political motives. (Munice, 2001: 62) Moral Panic: During the 60s to 70s, the British public was riveted by magnified coverage of highly unusual crime stories of violence crime committed by youth that turned into what some news outlets described as an all too familiar story. Rather than providing context, the medias labeling of these youth violence as symptom of social decline has tended to exacerbate peoples moral sensibilities about youth violence. The result is that misdirected public policy is being generated to increase social control, even though the real threat is minimal. Study of Mod and Rockers by Cohen: The first systematic empirical study of a moral panic in the UK was Stanley Cohens research on the social reaction to the Mod and Rockers disturbance of 1964. (Cohen 1973b) (Munice, 2001: 50) A group of youths broke out sabotage in the seaside resort of Clacton over the Easter bank holiday in 1964. The events were to receive front page outrage in the national press. The media spoke out of a day of terror of youngsters who beat up entire town. Youth were described as organized gangs who deliberately caused trouble by acting aggressively towards local residents and destroyed a great deal of public property. In Cohens research, however, found no evidence of any structured gangs within that area, thus, the total amount of serious violence and vandalism was not as great as media described. (Cohen, 1973) According to the Cohens analyses, it is obvious that media have exaggerated the seriousness of the Clacton event, in terms of criteria such as the number taking part, the number involved in violence and the amount and effects of any damage or violence. Such distortion took place primarily in terms of the mode and style of presentation characteristics of most crime reporting: the sensational headlines, the melodramatic vocabulary and the deliberate heightening of those elements in the story considered as news. (Cohen, 1973) The frequent use of misleading headlines and vocabulary like riot, beat up the town, attack, screaming mob which were discrepant with the actual story and left an image of a besieged town from which innocent holidaymakers were fleeing to escape a marauding mob. Medias distorted reporting not only exaggerated the seriousness of the initial events in 1964 but also amplified the youth deviance. The incessant news coverage of Mod and Rockers initiated a wider public concern, youth are labeled as a symptom of social decline. They are portrayed as being outside the central core values of our consensual society and as posing a particular threat to society. (Cohen, 1981: 273) Once youths have been identified with negative labeling, they will believe themselves to be more deviant and segregating out from the community, which will create a greater risk of long term social disorder. Thus, overreaction of the police and general public will contribute to further polarization between youth and the society. As a result, more crime would be committed by stigmatize group and lead to less tolerance of deviants by conforming groups.(McRobbie and Thornton,1995: 561) (Munice, 2001: 52) As Cohen shows in Mod and Rocker study, The continuing disturbance attracted more news coverage would increase police activity and further public concern. Media exaggerate the problem can give rise to local events seem ones of pressing national concern, and an index of decline of morality standards, which obliged the police to step up their surveillance. Consequently, the stepping up of controls lead to further marginalization and stigmatization of deviants which, in turn, lead to more calls for police action and into a deviancy amplification spiral. (McLaughlin, 2001: 176) Study of Mugging by Hall et al Hall et al (1978) reused the concept the moral panic in identifying a series of major social problems to do with permissiveness, vandals, student radicals and so on, culminating with the moral panic of mugging. Hall and others revealed that the media make use of moral panics to both define and distort social problems was fleshed out into a general critique of the medias construction of social reality. (Munice, 2001: 52) In Halls study of mugging in Policing the crisis, the media regarded mugging not as a particular type of robbery but rather a general social crisis and rising crime. (Hall et al., 1978: 66) The media presented mugging as a new and rapidly growing phenomenon. In fact, the crime was not new, only the label was, and official statistics did not support the view that it was growing rapidly, however, with a name for the crime now in existence old offenses were categorized as such, creating the impression of growth. The medias generated new category of crime created the impression of a crime wave, it further whipped up a moral panic around the issue which served to legitimate an increase in punitive measures; they conclude that the media played a key role in developing and maintaining the pressure for law and order measures-for example, police mugging squads and heavy sentences. (Munice, 2001:52-53) (Hewitt, 1995: 17) In this regard, moral panic can strengthen the powers of state control an d enabling law and order to be promoted without cognizance of the social divisions and conflicts which produce deviance and political dissent. (Munice, 2001: 55) It is not just a new category of crime has been defined by media, the media misrepresentation of crime also stigmatize the black youth as the cause of mugging without further explaining the structural reason of the crime, like poverty, social deprivation and class and racial inequality. (Munice, 2001:53) This ready application of stereotypes in mugging crime reporting portray crime in a way to be depicted in terms of a basic confrontation between the symbolic forces of good and evil. The process of deprivation and modes of social organization are rarely provided. (Chibnall, 1977: 79) As Hall concluded, crime reports tend to undo the complexities of crime by constructing a number of easy categories into which each type of crime can be placed. (Hall et al, 1978:13-15) (Munice, 2001: 47) After the analyses of issue of moral panic or fear of crime, there is one common element between two consequences of media representation of crime-both are generated by the media biased representation of crime. In order to investigate cases of apparent moral panic and fear of crime, it is necessary to understand how news is developed and the structural relationship between media and source of crime stories. The element of newsworthiness: The media appear to be involve in a continual search for the new unusual and dramatic. This is what makes the news. Under the market model (Cohen and Young, 1981), because of the business concern, news content needs to be generated and filtered primarily through reporter sense of newsworthiness to produce what makes a good story that their audience wants to know about in order to engage audiences and increase readership. The core elements of these are immediacy, dramatization, personalization, titillation and novertly. (Chibnall, 1977:22-45; Hall et al., 1978; Ericson et al., 1991) Thus, there are five sets of informal rules  [2]  of relevancy which govern the professional imperatives of popular journalism: these are visible and spectacular acts, sexual or political connotations, graphic presentation, individual pathology and deterrence and repression. (Chibnall, 1977: 77-79) These rules help us to understand how news values are structured and explain why there is a predominant e mphasis on violent offences. Organizational pressures: Besides the element of newsworthiness, there are a variety of concrete organizational pressures, for example, the periodicity, or timing, of the events and how they match the scheduling needs of the agency, cost effectiveness and efficiency, all these factors not only determine what is reported, they also lead to an unintended consequences- that is bolstering the law and order. (Reiner, 1997: 142) For example, numerous police personnel are available and willing to provide comments about an incident, which resulting in frequent citation of police sources in all types of crime stories. (Chermak, 1995: 38) Thus, court cases are frequently used by media, because lots of newsworthy cases are expected to recur regularly, therefore, court cases are an economic use of reporting resources. (Reiner, 1997: 221) Because police and courts resources are easily accessible and constantly available, media become more habitually rely on them as the main source of news information, and over time, the s tructural dependence of media on between criminal justice bureaucracies will be established, which permits the institutional definers to establish the primary interpretation of the topic in question. (Hall et al, 1978: 58; Chibnall 1977: chaps. 3, 6; Schlesinger and Tumber 1993) The notion of impartiality and the use of accredited source: The notion of impartiality and the news source used by journalists are the crucial reason to explain media biased representation of crime and the tendency towards institutional definers ideology. (Hall, 1981: 341-343) The media reporting is underwritten by the notions of impartiality, balance and objectivity. (Hall et al., 1981: 341) The practical pressures of constantly working against the clock and the professional demands of impartiality and credibility resulted in constant use of accredited representative of major criminal justice institutions- the police, the courts and the Home Office as the main source of news. These institutional representative agents are accredited because they are in a position to provide initial definitions or primary interpretation of crime and locate them within the context of a continuing crime problem. Because they control over material and mental resources, which news media have little direct access to, and their domination of the major institutions o f society, this classs definitions of the social world provide the basic rationale for those institutions which protect and reproduce their way of life. This control of mental resources ensures that theirs are the most powerful and universal of the available definitions of the social world. (Hall, 1981: 343) As a result, these rules which are originally aim to preserve the impartiality of media turn media as an apparatus to reproduce the definitions and ideology of primary definers. The study of Crimewatch UK-case illustration of relationship between Media and source of crime news The study of Crimewatch UK by Schlesinger and Tumber (1993) is a modern example to illustrate the above argument. The production team of Crimewatch UK has heavily used the information provided by the criminal justice institutions as the main source of crime stories. It is partly because of the notion of cost effectiveness, more importantly, it is because they want to make the program as documentary reconstruction rather than merely a crime drama without a realistic and documentary basis. (Schlesinger and Tumber, 1993: 24) However, the police as the source of crime stories broadly define the terms of reference within which Crimewatch UK may operate. It can be shown by the two basic ground rules of productions requested by the police in exchange for information: first, anything filmed would be embargoed and could not be used again unless the force involved gave its permission, and second, the police must reveal all the known facts and their suspicions to the Crimewatch team. (Schlesing er and Tumber, 1993: 23) Although the production team exercise editorial judgment over how the cases that they reconstruct are to be presented in television terms in order to maintain their impartiality, it is inevitable that their decisions are still within the criminal justice bureaucracies defined framework. (Schlesinger and Tumber, 1993: 30) From the above analyses, we can see how the notion of impartiality lead to the use of accredited source, and how the source provider- the criminal justice institutions turn a documentary program into the polices public relations program to reproduce the definitions of primary definers. Furthermore, this study also demonstrated the asymmetrical relationship between the news and source of information. Journalists are always in an inferior negotiating position in the negotiation process regarding to the definition and presentation of crime. News media are constrained to sacrifice their relationship with the police personnel because they fear losing information access. Reporters rarely challenge the police perspective because of the information police can provide. As what Chibnall described, The reporter who cannot get information is out of a job, whereas the policeman who retains it is not. (Chibnall, 1977: 155) This asymmetrical relationship between media and the source is evidently demonstrated in the case of Crimewatch study. Since the production team is heavily dependent upon the police to provide information of crime cases, they realize that if the police do not provide such information, the program can never be successfully produced. Therefore, editorial judgmen t is limited and the presentation of crime stories are constrained within the polices basic grounded rules and their defined framework. Representation of crime and definition of criminal justice bureaucracies Most commonly, the media are accused of exaggerating the risk of crime, representing an image of the world which is scary and mean, creating crime waves in order to cultivate moral sensibilities and fear among the society. However, such argument ignores the significant influence of the source of crime and overestimates the representation power of the media. It is important to understand that the power to construct social reality rests not merely with media, but also with those who can control the medias raw materials for news-the criminal justice institutions. (Fishman, 1981: 136) Crime news is mutually determined by journalists, whose image of crime is shaped by police concerns and by police, whose concerns with crime are influenced by media practices. However, if criminal justice bureaucracies are not cooperative in providing relevant information as requested by media, media would not have sufficient resource to form crime waves and representation of crime will be changed. In this regard, criminal justice institutions are the crucial determinant to define what is produced and presented. Journalists convey an image of crime wholly accord with the police departments notion of serious crime and social order as orchestrating with criminal justice institutions. Therefore, as long as the routine source for crime news is criminal justice institutions, the presses are inevitable to reinforce the crime definition from criminal justice institutions. Representation of crime and social control According to hegemony theorists, media are regarded as a secondary definer to orchestrate with dominants consent by actively intervening in the space of public opinion and social consciousness through the use of highly emotive and rhetorical language. This exaggerated way of presentation has a effect of requiring that something has to be done about it. Thus, the impartiality notions of media can be served to objectify a public issue. That is, the publicizing of an issue in the media can serve as an independent opinion to a real issue of public concern rather than merely official information or a direct projection of the governments ideology. In this regard, media can be leveraged as a public agenda setting function to translate primary definers definition of crime into a public issue. (Hall et al., 1981: 346) Once the prolonged public agenda concern in particular crime is formed, moral sensibilities and anxiety are cultivated among society, the press can help to legitimate and reinfo rce the actions of the primary definer by bringing their own independent arguments to bear on the public in support of the actions proposed; or it can bring pressure to bear on the primary definers by summoning up public opinion in support of its own views that stronger measures are needed. (Hall et al., 1981: 348) In late 1976, a great deal of publicity and anxiety was generated over an apparent crime wave against the elderly in New York, which led to the setup of a police sponsored community deference program. However, the official statistics did not support the view that violent crime against elderly was rapidly growing at the same time as the media were reporting a crime surge. The US sociologist Mark Fishman used this example to demonstrate the above argument. According to Fishman, the police do play a crucial role in reinforcing journalistically to produce concern about crime waves by selecting further incidents for reporters based on what has been covered before. Furthermore, the police are in a position to intimate perceptions of a crime wave themselves by the way in which they select crime incidents for their press release. (Fishman, 1981) In this regard, media play an orchestrating role to present what is defined by the police in order to create crime wave, the widespread of news cove rage cultivated anxiety among society, as a result, like what we have concluded above, media in respond to public opinion to pressure the police in order to increase social control by forming the deference program. In this case, the initiation of social control can be legitimated as the reaction of the criminal justice institutions to the public opinion Newspaper reports are disproportionately concentrated on violent crimes, even it seems they are not deliberately focus on this particular category of crime due to medias organizational pressures and code of practice, however, as what I have discussed above, without the source of news provided by criminal justice institutions, crime stories can never be formed. Therefore, the criminal justice institutions are also responsible to affect the media representation of crime by manipulating the source of information. Criminal justice institutions and media can generate fear by providing same kind of crimes persistently in epidemic proportions. For instance, media will suddenly focus on crimes that they had previously ignored and report them to the public. (E.g. mugging and violent crimes against elderly) (Fishman, 1976). In this regard, criminal justice institutions and media are both responsible for exaggerating the magnitude of the problem to sustain public attention for prolonged periods , as a result, fear and moral sensibilities can be instilled. What is important to recognition that moral panic and fear of crime are the first link in a spiral of events leading to the maintenance of law in society by legitimize rule through coercion and the general exercise of authority. The sudden defining and focusing of the historically recurring event of street crime have created the impression of a crime wave, this provides government with the justification to introduce repressive legislation in order to increase its control among the society. (Munice, 2001: 53) Since fearful people are more dependent, more easily manipulated and controlled, more susceptible to deceptively simple, strong, tough measures and hard line postures. They may accept and even welcome repression if it promises to relieve their insecurities and other anxieties. (Signorielli 1990:102) (Reiner, 1997: 217) Consequently, the report of crime waves will produce public pressure to call for tough authoritative institutional control, public support can be mustered to institute formal sanctions. The study of Mod and Rocker by Stanley Cohen and the study of muggers by Stuart Hall and his fellows both demonstrate medias exaggeration of crime risks is claimed to increase political support for authoritarian solutions to a crisis of law and order which is largely the creation of media misrepresentation of crime. Media act in a role to stigmatize young Afro-Caribbean as folk devils and generate moral panic in order to created social conditions of consent for the construction of a society more focused towards law and order. The government uncontrollable and structural causes of social unrest can be overlooked, when the public gaze is fixed by stigmatizing young Afro-Caribbean as visual symbols of what was wrong in society, with the increase of social control measures initiated by the government. As a result, the threats of society seems to be eliminated by social and legislative action; the tough punitive measures can be legitimized to control the unstable social environment, the l egitimacy of the government can be reassured by providing public a image of strong government and strong leadership. (Cohen, 1973; Munice, 2001: 52; McRobbie and Thornton, 1995: 562, Hewitt, 1995: 12-16) The media not only exaggerate crimes, on the other hand, they portray the criminal justice bureaucracies, especially the police in a positive light. Routine news reporting about police and crime has a public relations function for police, promoting organizational and occupational ideologies. (Ericson, 1991: 224) The news media dramatize the polices routine works and give the police a ceremonial force. This has promotional value for the police, because it often shows them to be quite effective in fighting crime. (Marsh 1988) (Ericson, 1991:224) Several researchers have examined the relationship between news and police personnel (Chibnall, 1977; Ericson, Baranek and Chan, 1989; Fishman, 1980; Hall et al., 1978) . Most ethnographic research concludes that the police determine what is presented in the news, and describe news media as conduits for police ideology (Chibnall, 1977; Fishman, 1980; Hall et al., 1978) Police frame crime stories in a self promoting way to exaggerate their effectiveness by compiling statistics on performance measures such as the number of offences as well as arrest data. Furthermore, the police can decide when story information should be released, limiting access to reports and diverting attentions from specific events, in order to manipulate medias representation of crime and criminal justice. The US sociologist Chermaks media contend analysis study (Chermak, 1995) and Roshiers study in the UK  [3]  both evident that (Schlesinger and Tumber, reading list: 186) criminal justice bureaucracies, espe cially the police can manipulate the medias representation of crime and criminal justice system by manipulating information in order to provide a favorable image of police and strengthen the states legitimacy. Furthermore, it has been also suggested by Carlson (1985) that such biased representation of criminal justice bureaucracies can lead to support of more social control. He claims to show that heavier television viewers are comparatively ill-informed about legal process; they have a propensity to believe that the police are effective in combating crime and support. As a result, heavy viewers are tended to support more social control. (Sparks 1992, , Ericson, 1991: 283) Criticism of hegemony and Halls theory: The theory of hegemony has been criticized by many scholars that it has paid inadequate attention to the communication process. They argued that the hegemony theory supporters have been characterized by a tendency to treat media as homogeneous, this largely ignores the distinctiveness of particular media and the ways in which such media are internally differentiated. (Schlesinger et al., 1990: 96-97; Ericson et al, 1991) It has been suggested by Ericson et al that there are systematic variations between the presentations of crime in different media and markets.(Ericson et al, 1991) This is partly because of they have different variants to political and professional journalistic ideology according to patterns of ownership and perceived audience. There are interconnected with differences in technological resources, budge